Michael Swan

PRACTICAL

ENGLISH

USAGE

Third Edition

OXFORD

UNIVERSITY PRESS

OXFORD University Press

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ISBN-13: 9780194420990 (hardback)

ISBN-10: 019442099 X

ISBN-13: 978 0194420983 (paperback)

ISBN-10: 0194420981

PRACTICAL ENGLISH USAGE 

Dedication

To John Eckersley, who first encouraged my interest in this kind of thing

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to all the people who have helped me with the preparation of this third edition. Alarge number of teachers in different countries were kind enough to respond to an enquiry asking how they felt Practical English Usage could be improved: their feedback was extremely helpful, and I am very much in their debt. I am also greatly indebted to David Baker, whose comments and suggestions have added very significantly to the accuracy and clarity of the book, and to Hideo Hibino and Kenji Kashino, who have contributed valuable advice on specific problems. Many other teachers and students ~ too many to name -have taken the trouble to suggest ways in which particular entries could be improved; their input has benefited the book considerably. My use of the intern et as a source of instances of authentic usage has been greatly facilitated by the kind assistance of Hiroaki Sato, of Senshu University, Japan, who made available his excellent software tool KwiconGugle. I must also reacknowledge my debt to Ionathan Blundell, Norman Coe, Michio Kawakami, Michael Macfarlane, Nigel Middlemiss, Keith Mitchell, Catherine Walter, Gareth Watkins, and the many other consultants and correspondents whose help and advice with the preparation of the first and second editions continue as an important contribution to the third. Any pedagogic grammarian owes an enormous debt to the academic linguists on whose research he or she is parasitic. There is not enough space to mention all the scholars of the last hundred years or so on whose work I have drawn directly or indirectly, even if I had a complete record of my borrowings. But I must at least pay homage to two monumental reference works of the present generation: the Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik (Longman 1985), and the Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, by Huddleston, Pullum and others (Cambridge University Press 2002). Their authoritative accounts of the facts of English structure and usage constitute an essential source of information for anyone writing pedagogic grammar materials today. Finally, it is with particular pleasure that I express my gratitude, once again, to the editorial, design and production team at Oxford University Press, whose professional expertise is matched only by their concern to make an author's task as trouble-free as possible.

Contents summary

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Contents Overview

Language Terminology

Don't say it: 130 common mistakes

Phonetic alphabet

Practical English Usage

Index

Introduction

The purpose of this book

English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner. Some of these points are easy to explain - for instance, the formation of questions, the difference between since and for, the meaning of after all. Other problems are more tricky, and cause difficulty even for advanced students and teachers. How exactly is the present perfect used? When do we use past tenses to be polite? What are the differences between at, on and in with expressions of place? We can say a chair leg - why not *a cat leg? When can we use the expression do so? When is the used with superlatives? Is unless the same as if not? What are the differences between come and go, between each and every, between big, large and great, between fairly, quite, rather and pretty? Is it correct to say There's three more bottles in the fridge? How do you actually say 3 x 4 = 12? And so on, and so on.

Practical English Usage is a guide to problems of this kind. It deals with over 600 points which regularly cause difficulty to foreign students of English. It will be useful, for example, to a learner who is not sure how to use a particular structure, or who has made a mistake and wants to find out why it is wrong. It will also be helpful to a teacher who is looking for a clear explanation of a difficult language point. There is very full coverage of grammar, as well as explanations of a large number of common vocabulary problems. There are also some entries designed to clarify more general questions (e.g. formality, slang, the nature of standard English and dialects) which students and teachers may find themselves concerned with.

Level

The book is intended for higher level students of English and for teachers. Being a reference book, it contains information at various levels, ranging from relatively simple points to quite advanced problems. 

Organisation

Problems are mostly explained in short separate entries: the book is more like a dictionary than a grammar in form. This makes it possible to give a clear complete treatment of each point, and enables the user to concentrate just on the question that he or she needs information about. Entries that deal with related topics (e.g. different uses of a tense) are grouped where this is useful, but can be read separately. In longer entries, basic information is generally given first, followed by more detailed explanations and discussions of less important points. Entries are arranged alphabetically by title and numbered in sequence. A comprehensive Index shows where each point can be found (see 'How to find things'). 

Approach and style

I have tried to make the presentation as practical as possible. Each entry contains an explanation of a problem, examples of correct usage, and (when this is useful) examples of typical mistakes. In some cases, an explanation may be somewhat different from that found in many learners' grammars; this is because speech) are not always accurate or helpful. Explanations are, as far as possible, in simple everyday language. Where it has been necessary to use grammatical terminology, I have generally preferred to use traditional terms that are simple and easy to understand, except where this would be seriously misleading. Some of these terms (e.g. future tense) would be regarded as unsatisfactory by academic grammarians, but I am not writing for specialists. There is a dictionary of the terminology used in the book on pages xvii-xxv.

The kind of English described

The explanations deal mainly with standard modern everyday British English, and are illustrated with realistic examples of current usage. Both explanations and examples have been thoroughly checked against large electronic databases ('corpora') of authentic spoken and written English. Stylistic differences (e.g. between formal and informal usage, or spoken and written language) are mentioned where this is appropriate. The few grammatical differences between British and American English are also described, and there is a good deal of information about other British-American differences, but the book is not intended as a systematic guide to American usage.

Correctness

If people say that a form is not 'correct', they can mean several different things. They may for instance be referring to a sentence like *I have seen her yesterday, which normally only occurs in the English of foreigners. They may be thinking of a usage like less people (instead of fewer people), which is common in standard English but regarded as wrong by some people. Or they may be talking about forms like * ain't or 'double negatives', which are used in speech by many British and American people, but which do not occur in the standard dialects and are not usually written. This book is mainly concerned with the first kind of 'correctness': the differences between British or American English and 'foreign' English. However, there is also information about cases of divided usage in standard English, and about a few important dialect forms.

How important is correctness?

If someone makes too many mistakes in a foreign language, he or she can be difficult to understand, so a reasonable level of correctness is important. However, it is quite unnecessary to speak or write a language perfectly in order to communicate effectively (very few adults in fact achieve a perfect command of another language). Learners should aim to avoid serious mistakes (and a book like Practical English Usage will help considerably with this); but they should not become obsessed with correctness, or worry every time they make a mistake. Grammar is not the most important thing in the world!

What this book does not do

Practical English Usage is not a complete guide to the English language. As the title suggests, its purpose is practical: to give learners and their teachers the most important information they need in order to deal with common language problems. Within this framework, the explanations are as complete and accurate as I can make them. However it is not always helpful or possible in a book of this kind to deal with all the details of a complex structural point; so readers may well find occasional exceptions to some of the grammatical rules given here. Equally, the book does not aim to replace a dictionary. While it gives information about common problems with the use of a number of words, it does not attempt to describe other meanings or uses of the words beside those points that are selected for attention.

Other reference books

A book like this gives explanations of individual points of usage, but does not show how the separate points 'fit together'. Those who need a systematically organised account of the whole of English grammar should consult a book such as the Oxford Learner's Grammar, by John Eastwood (Oxford University Press), A Student's Grammar of the English Language, by Greenbaum and Quirk (Longman), or Collins Cobuild English Grammar (Collins). For a detailed treatment of English vocabulary, see the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, the Macmillan English Dictionary or the Collins Cobuild English Dictionary.

Changes in the third edition

English, like all languages, is changing, and British English is currently being quite strongly influenced by American English. Consequently, some usages which were unusual in standard British English a few decades ago have now become common - for example, the use of like as a conjunction (e.g. like I do), or the use of Do you have ... ? to ask about the immediate present (e.g. Do you have a light?). The third edition takes account of a number of changes of this kind, in order to give a fully up-to-date description of contemporary usage.

How to find things

The best way to find information about a particular point is to look in the Index. Most points are indexed under several different names, so it is not difficult to locate the entry you need. For instance, if you want to know why we say I'm not used to driving on the left instead of I'm not used to drive on the left, you can find the number of the section where this is explained by looking in the index under 'used', 'be used', 'to' or '-ing forms'. (On the other hand, it would obviously not be helpful to look under 'drive': the rule is a general one about the use of -ing forms after be used to, not about the verb drive in particular.)

Contents Overview

This overview gives a general picture of the topics covered in the book; it is not a complete guide to the contents. References are to entry numbers. To find information about a particular point, consult the Index on pages 624-658,

verbs, tense and aspect

future 211-221

present tenses 461-466

past simple and progressive 421-422

perfect verb forms 427

present perfect 455-460

past perfect 423-425

progressive (continuous) verb forms 470-472

past verb form with present or future meaning 426

tense simplification in subordinate clauses (present for future, past for would etc) 580

be, do, have and modal auxiliaries

auxiliary verbs 85
be 89-92
there is 587
do 158-162
have 234-239

modal verbs 353-354
can and could 121-125
may and might 338-344
can, could, may and might compared 345
must 358-361
ought 403
should 518-521
should, ought and must compared 520
will 629
would 633

infinitives and participles

infinitives 279-292

-ing forms 293-294

-ing forms used like nouns (gerunds) 295-298

-ing form or infinitive after remember, go on etc 299

-ing and -ed forms used as adjectives (participles) 408-411

verbs: other points

active verb forms 10

passives 412-420

subjunctive 567

link verbs: be, seem, look etc 328

irregular verbs 304

verb complementation (what can follow a verb?) 606

verbs with two objects 610

verb + object + complement 607

two-part verbs: phrasal verbs 599; prepositional verbs 600

verbs of movement (she ran in etc) 608

turning verbs into nouns 598

older English verb forms 392

nouns

singular and plural 523-532

countable and uncountable nouns 148-149

gender (references to males and females) 222

piece- and group-words (a bar of chocolate, a bunch of flowers etc) 430

possessive's 439-440

noun + noun 385-386

complementation (what can follow a noun?) 384

pronouns

personal pronouns(I, me, you etc) 428-9

reflexive pronouns (myself etc) 493

each other and one another 171

indefinite pronouns (somebody, someone, anything etc) 548

interrogative which, what, who etc 622-624

one: substitute word (a big one etc) 395

possessives and demonstratives: see determiners

relative who, whom, which, that etc 494-497

whoever, whatever etc 625

determiners (the, my, some, several etc)

introduction 154

articles (a/an and the) 61-70

possessives (my, mine etc) 441-443

demonstratives (this, that, these, those) 589-590

all 35-40

another and other(s) 54

any 55

any and every 56

both 110

each 169

each and every 170

every (one) 193

either 174

enough 187

half 231

less and fewer 320

least and fewest 318

(a) little and (a) few 329

[a] lot 333

more 355

most 356

much and many 357

neither (of) 372

no, none and not a/any 376

so much and so many 542

some 546

some and any 547

too much and too many 596

adjectives

position 12-14

order before nouns 15

complementation (what can follow an adjective?) 19

adjectives with and 16

adjectives without nouns 17

pronunciation of aged, naked etc 18

adverbs

position 21-25

adverbs of manner and adjectives 26

adverbs or adjectives? confusing cases 27

adverb particles 20

comparison

structures 135

as ... as; as much/many as 136

comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs 137-141

prepositions

general
introduction 448
at the ends of clauses 452
before conjunctions 453
before -ing forms 454
before and after particular words
and expressions 449-450
prepositional verbs 600
expressions without prepositions 451

particular prepositions
about and on 4
above and over 6
according to 8
across, over and through 9
along 45
(a)round and about 60
at/in and to 80
at, on and in: place 81
at, on and in: time 82
before and in front of 98
below, under, underneath
and beneath 100
between and among 105
by time 117
by and near 118
by (method, agent) and with (tools etc) 119
due to and owing to 166
during and for 167
during and in 168
for: purpose and cause 207
for, since, in and from time 208
in and into, on and onto 269
in and to 270
in spite of 272
instead of 301
like and as: similarity, function 326
near (to) 365
opposite, facing and in front of 402
out of 404
through: time 592
until 602
up and down 603
with 631

conjunctions

general
conjunctions 510
sentence structure 511

particular conjunctions
and 52
and after try, wait, go etc 53
as and though: special word order 71
as if and as though; like 74
as long as 75
as well as 78
because 94
before 97
both and 111
either or 175
how 252
immediately, the moment etc 267
it's time (that) 306
lest 321
neither ... nor 373
neither, nor and not ... either 374
not only ... 383
now (that) 387
once 394
so that and in order that 543
that-clauses 583
omission of that 584
unless 601
when and if 618
whether ... or ... 620
whether and if 621

word order and sentence organisation

basic word order 509

inversion (verb before subject) 302-303

fronting (e.g. People like that I can't stand) 513

information structure 512

emphasis 184

various structures

questions 480-486

question tags 487-488

negative structures 367-371

imperatives 268, 323 (let)

exclamations 195

direct speech: reporting verbs and word order 156

indirect speech (reported speech) 274-278

relatives (the person who ... etc): 494-498

whoever, whatever etc 625

if 256-265

preparatory it: 446-447

cleft sentences: what I need is a holiday 130; it was my secretary who ... 131

ellipsis (leaving out words) 177-182

understanding complicated sentences 515

constructing text

discourse markers (linking expressions) 157

paragraphs 406

repetition 500

correspondence
letters 146
emails and text messages 147

spoken grammar

contractions 143

spoken structures and tags 514

short answers (Yes, he can etc) 517

reply questions (Was it? Did you?) 484

special kinds of language

abbreviations and acronyms 2

idioms, collocations and fixed expressions 255

politeness
using questions 435
distancing verb forms 436
softening expressions 437
'social' language 545

varieties and styles of English
American and British English 51
standard English and dialects 308
correctness 309
spoken and written English 310
formality 311
variation and change 312
abbreviated styles 1
headlines 240
slang 533
taboo words and swearwords 575

topic areas

age 32

dates 152

meals 347

measurements: 'marked' and 'unmarked' forms 350

names (Florence, Homer etc) 362

names and titles (Peter; Mr Lewis) 363

nationalities, countries and regions 364

numbers 389

telephoning 578

telling the time 579

spelling and punctuation

spelling 556-565

punctuation 473-479

pronunciation

stress and rhythm 554

intonation 555

weak and strong forms 616

word-building

prefixes and suffixes 445

confusable words and expressions

   accept and agree 7
all right and alright 41
allow, permit and let 42
almost and nearly; practically 43
alone, lonely, lonesome and lone 44
also, as well and too 46-47
alternately and alternatively 48
although, though, but and however: contrast 49
altogether and all together 50
arise and rise 59
as, because, since and for 72
as, when and while: simultaneous events 73
at first and first 84
(a)wake and (a)waken 86
back and again 87
bath and bathe 88
beat and win 93
begin and start 99
beside and besides 101
besides, except and apart from 102
big, large and great 106
born and borne 108
borrow and lend 109
bring and take 112
bring up and educate 113
Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England 114
broad and wide 115
care: take care (of), care (about) and
care for 127
changes (become, get, go, grow etc) 128
city and town 129
classicand classical 254
close and shut 132
cloth and clothes 133
come and go 134
comic and comical 254
continual(ly) and continuous(ly) 142
dead, died and death 153
east and eastern, north and northern etc 172
economic and economical 254
efficient and effective 173
electric and electrical 254
end and finish verbs 185
especial(ly) and special(ly) 188
except and except for 194
expect, hope, wait and look forward 196
experiment and experience 197
fairly, quite, rather and pretty: adverbs of degree 199
far and a long way 200
farther and further 201
female and feminine; male and masculine 203
finally, at last, in the end and at the end 204
fit and suit 206
forget and leave 209
fun and funny 210
get and go: movement 225
hear and listen (to) 241
here and there 245
high and tall 246
hire, rent and let 247
historic and historical 254
holiday and holidays 248
how and what ... like? 253
ill and sick 266
in case and if 271
its and it's 305
last, the last, the latest 314
later and in 315
lay and lie 316
long and (for) a long time 330
lose and loose 332
loudly and aloud 334
magic and magical 254
maybe and perhaps 346
next and the next; nearest 37
no more, not any more, no longer 379
not and no 382
opportunity and possibility 400
play and game 432
politic and political 254
politics and policy 438
price and prize 468
principal and principle 469
road and street 502
say and tell 504
sensible and sensitive 508
shade and shadow 516
small and little 534
so (conjunction) and then 537
sometime, sometime and sometimes 549
soon, early and quickly 550
such and so 569
speak and talk 553
thankful and grateful 582
travel, journey, trip and voyage 597
whose and who's 627

other words and expressions

   [be] able to 3
actual(ly) 11
afraid 28
after adverb 29
after: conjunction 30
after all 31
ago 33
alike 34
any (any better etc) 57
appear 58
as: structures 581
as such 76
as usual 77
ask 79
at all 83
before: adverb 96
bet 103
better 104
[a] bit 107
but meaning 'except' 116
call 120
can't help 126
contrary 144
control 145
country 150
dare 151
different 155
divorce 337
doubt 163
dress 164
drown 165
elder and eldest 176
else 183
enjoy 186
even 189
eventual(ly) 190
ever 191
ever so, ever such 192
explain 198
feel 202
finished 205
first (this is the first ... etc): tenses 591
get: meanings and structures 223-224
give with action-nouns 226
go/come for a ... 227
go/come ... ing 228
gone with be 229
had better 230
happen to ... 232
hardly, scarcely and no sooner 233
hear, see etc + object + verb form 242
hear, see etc with that-clause 243
help 244
home 249
hope 250
hopefully 251
indeed 273
just 307
know 313
last (this is the last ... etc): tenses 591
learn 317
left 319
let: 322-323
life: countable or uncountable 324
like verb 325
likely 327
look 331
make: 335-336
marry 337
mean 348
means 349
mind (do you mind etc) 351
miss 352
need 366
no (no better etc) 57
no doubt 377
no matter 378
nowadays 388
of course 390
often 391
once: adverb 393
only: focusing adverb 398
open 399
opposite (adjective) position 401
own 405
part 407
place (a place to live, etc) 431
please and thank you 433
point of view 434
prefer 444
presently 467
quite 489
rather 490-491
reason 492
remind 499
[the] rest 501
[the] same 503
see 505
see, look (at) and watch 506
seem 507
smell 535
since: tenses 522
so: degree adverb (so tired, so fast) 538
so (and not) with hope, believe etc 539
so with say and tell 540
so-and-so; so-so 544
sort of, kind of and type of 551
sound 552
still, yet and already: time 566
such 568
suggest 570
suppose, supposing and what if 571
supposed to 572
surely 573
sympathetic 574
take: time 576
taste 577
than: structures 581
the matter (with) 585
there 586
think 588
time 593
tonight 594
too 595
used to 604
[be] used to ... ing 605
very and very much 611
wait 612
want 613
-wards 614
way 615
well 617
where (to) 619
why and why not 628
wish: tenses 630
worth 632
yes and no 634

Language terminology

The following words and expressions are used in this book to talk about grammar and other aspects of language.

abstract noun (the opposite of a concrete noun) the name of something which we experience as an idea, not by seeing, touching etc. Examples: doubt; height; geography.

active An active verb form is one like breaks, told, will help (not like is broken, was told, will be helped, which are passive verb forms). The subject of an active verb is usually the person or thing that does the action, or that is responsible for what happens.

adjective a word like green, hungry, impossible, which is used when we describe people, things, events etc. Adjectives are used in connection with nouns and pronouns. Examples: a green apple; She's hungry.

adverb a word liketomorrow, once, badly, there, also, which is used to say, for example, when, where or how something happens. There are very many kinds of adverbs with different functions: see 22-27.

adverb particle a short adverb like up, out, off, often used as part of a phrasal verb (e.g. clean up, look out, tell off).

affirmative an affirmative sentence is one that makes a positive statement - not a negative sentence or a question. Compare I agree (affirmative); I don't agree (negative).

agent In a passive sentence, the agent is the expression that says who or what an action is done by. Example: This picture was probably painted by a child.

article A, an and the are called 'articles'. A/an is called the 'indefinite article'; the is called the' definite article'.

aspect Grammarians prefer to talk about progressive and perfective aspect, rather than progressive and perfect tense, since these forms express other ideas besides time (e.g. continuity, completion). However, in this book the term tense is often used to include aspect, for the sake of simplicity.

attributive Adjectives placed before nouns are in 'attributive position'. Examples: a green shirt; my noisy son. See also predicative.

auxiliary verb a verb like be, have, do which is used with another verb to make tenses, passive forms etc. Examples: She was writing; Where have you put it? See also modal auxiliary verb.

clause a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, usually joined to the rest of a sentence by a conjunction. Example: Mary said that she was tired. (The word clause is also sometimes used for structures containing participles or infinitives with no subject or conjunction. Example: Not knowing what to do, I telephoned Robin.)

cleft sentence a sentence in which special emphasis is given to one part (e.g. the subject or the object) by using a structure with it or what. Examples: It was you that caused the accident; What I need is a drink.

collective noun a singular word for a group. Examples:family; team.

comparative the form of an adjective or adverb made with-er (e.g. older, faster); also the structure more + adjective/adverb, used in the same way (e.g. more useful, more politely).

complement (1) a part of a sentence that gives more information about the subject (afterbe, seem and some other verbs), or, in some structures, about the object. Examples: You're the right person to help; She looks very kind; They elected him President. (2) a structure or words needed after a noun, adjective, verb or preposition to complete its meaning. Examples: the intention to travel; full of water; try phoning, down the street.

compound a compound noun, verb, adjective, preposition etc is one that is made of two or more parts. Examples: bus driver; get on with; one-eyed.

concrete noun (the opposite of an abstract noun) the name of something which we can experience by seeing, touching etc. Examples: cloud; petrol; raspberry.

conditional (1) a verb form made by using the auxiliarywould (also should afterI andwe). Examples: I would run; She would sing; We should think. (2) a clause or sentence containing if (or a word with a similar meaning), and perhaps containing a conditional verb form. Examples: If you try you'll understand; I should be surprised if she knew; What would you have done if the train had been late?

conjunction a word likeand, but, although, because, when, if, which can be used to join clauses together. Example: I rang because I was worried.

consonant for example, the letters b, c, d, f, g and their usual sounds (see phonetic alphabet). See also vowel.

continuous the same as progressive.

contraction a short form in which a subject and an auxiliary verb, or an auxiliary verb and the wordnot, are joined together into one word. Contractions are also made with non-auxiliarybe and have. Examples: I'm; who've; John'll; can't.

co-ordinate clause one of two or more main or subordinate clauses of equal 'value' that are connected. Examples: Shall I come to your place or would you like to come to mine?; It's cooler today and there's a bit of a wind; she said that it was late and that she was tired. See also main clause, subordinate clause.

copular verb the same as link verb.

countable noun a noun like car, dog, idea, which can have a plural form, and can be used with the indefinite articlea/an. See also uncountable noun.

declarative question a question which has the same grammatical form as a statement. Example: That's your girlfriend?

definite article the.

defining relative see identifying relative.

demonstrative this, these, that, those.

determiner one of a group of words that begin noun phrases. Determiners include a/an, the, my, this, each, either, several, more, both, all.

direct object see object.

direct speech speech reported 'directly', in the words used by the original speaker (more or less), without any changes of tense, pronouns etc. Example: She looked at me and said 'This is my money'. See also indirect speech.

discourse marker a word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the wider context. A discourse marker may, for example, connect a sentence with what comes before or after, or it may show the speaker's attitude to what he/she is saying. Examples: on the other hand; frankly; as a matter of fact.

duration how long something lasts. The preposition for can be used with an expression of time to indicate duration.

ellipsis leaving out words when their meaning can be understood from the context. Examples: (It's a) Nice day, isn't it?; It was better than I expected (it would be).

emphasis giving special importance to one part of a word or sentence (for example by pronouncing it more loudly; by writing it in capital letters; by using do in an affirmative clause; by using special word order).

emphatic pronoun reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself etc) used to emphasise a noun or pronoun. Examples: I'll tell him myself, I wouldn't sell this to the king himself. See also reflexive pronoun.

ending something added to the end of a word, e.g. -er, -ing, -ed.

first person see person.

formal the style used when talking politely to strangers, on special occasions, in some literary writing, in business letters, etc. For example, commence is a more formal word than start.

frequency Adverbs of frequency say how often something happens. Examples: often; never; daily; occasionally.

fronting moving a part of a clause to the beginning in order to give it special emphasis. Example: Jack I like, but his wife I can't stand.

full verb see main verb.

future a verb form made with the auxiliary shall/will + infinitive without to. Examples; I shall arrive; Will it matter?

future perfect a verb form made with shall/will + have + past participle. Example: I will have finished by lunchtime.

future progressive (or future continuous) a verb form made with shall/will + be + ... ing. Example: I will be needing the car this evening.

gender the use of different grammatical forms to show the difference between masculine, feminine and neuter, or between human and nonhuman. Examples: he; she; it; who; which.

gerund the form of a verb ending in -ing, used like a noun (for example, as the subject or object of a sentence). Examples: Smoking is bad for you; I hate getting up early. See also present participle.

gradable Pretty, hard or cold are gradable adjectives: things can be more or less pretty, hard or cold. Adverbs of degree (like rather, very) can be used with gradable words. Perfect or dead are not gradable words: we do not usually say that something is more or less perfect, or very dead.

grammar the rules that show how words are combined, arranged or changed to show certain kinds of meaning.

hypothetical Some words and structures (e.g. modal verbs, if-clauses) are used for hypothetical situations - that is to say, situations which may not happen, or are imaginary. Example: What would you do if you had six months free?

identifying (or defining) relative clause a relative clause which identifies a noun - which tells us which person or thing is being talked about. Example: There's the woman who tried to steal your cat. (The relative clause who tried to steal your cat identifies the woman - it tells us which woman is meant.) See also non-identifying relative clause.

imperative the form of a verb used to give orders, make suggestions, etc. Examples: Bring me a pen; Have a good holiday.

indefinite article a/an.

indirect object see object.

indirect speech a structure in which we report what somebody said by making it part of our own sentence (so that the tenses, word order, and pronouns and other words may be different from those used by the original speaker). Compare: He said 'I'm tired' (the original speaker's words are reported in direct speech) and He said that he was tired (the original speaker's words are reported in indirect speech).

infinitive the 'base' form of a word (usually with to), used after another verb, after an adjective or noun, or as the subject or complement of a sentence. Examples: I want to go home; It's easy to sing; I've got a plan to start a business; To err is human, to forgive divine.

informal the style used in ordinary conversation, personal letters etc, when there is no special reason to speak politely or carefully. I'll is more informal than I will; get is used mostly in an informal style; start is a more informal word than commence.

-ing form the form of a verb ending in -ing. Examples: finding; keeping; running. See also gerund, present participle.

initial at the beginning. Sometimes is an adverb that can go in initial position in a sentence. Example: Sometimes I wish I had a different job.

intensifying making stronger, more emphatic. Very and terribly are intensifying adverbs.

interrogative Interrogative structures and words are used for asking questions. In an interrogative sentence, there is an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be) before the subject (e.g. Can you swim?; Are you ready?). What, who and where are interrogative words.

intonation the 'melody' of spoken language: the way the musical pitch of the voice rises and falls to show meaning, sentence structure or mood.

intransitive An intransitive verb is one that cannot have an object or be used in the passive. Examples: smile; fall; come; go.

inversion a structure in which an auxiliary or other verb comes before its subject. Examples: Never had she seen such a mess; Here comes John.

irregular not following the normal rules. or not having the usual form. An irregular verb has a past tense and/ or past participle that does not end in -ed (e.g. swam, taken); children is an irregular plural.

link verb (or copular verb) be, seem, feel and other verbs which link a subject to a complement that describes it. Examples: My mother is in Jersey; He seems unhappy; This feels soft.

main clause, subordinate clause Some sentences consist of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause acts like a part of the main clause (e.g. like a subject, or an object, or an adverbial). Examples: Where she is doesn't matter (the subordinate clause Where she is is the subject of the main clause); I told you that I didn't care (the subordinate clause that I didn't care is the direct object in the main clause); You'll find friends wherever you go (the subordinate clause wherever you go acts like an adverb in the main clause: compare You'll find friends anywhere).

main verb (or full verb) A verb phrase often contains one or more auxiliary verbs together with a main verb. The main verb is the verb which expresses the central meaning; auxiliary verbs mostly add grammatical information (for instance they may show that a verb is progressive, future, perfect or passive). Examples: is going, will explain; has arrived; would have been forgotten.

manner an adverb of manner describes how something happens. Examples: well; suddenly; fast.

mid-position If an adverb is in mid-position in a sentence, it is with the verb. Example: I have never been to Africa.

misrelated participle (also called hanging or dangling participle) a participle which appears to have a subject which is not its own. Example: Looking out of the window, the mountains appeared very close. (This seems to say that the mountains were looking out of the window.) The structure is usually avoided in careful writing because of the danger of misunderstanding.

modal auxiliary verb one of the verbs can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, would, should, ought.

modify An adjective is said to 'modify' the noun it is with: it adds to or defines its meaning. Examples: a fine day; my new job. An adverb can modify a verb (e.g. run fast), an adjective (e.g. completely ready) or other words or expressions. In sports car, the first noun modifies the second.

negative a negative sentence is one in which the word not is used with the verb. Example: I didn't know.

nominal relative clause a relative clause (usually introduced by what) which acts as the subject, object or complement of a sentence. Example: I gave him what he needed.

non-affirmative (also called non-assertive) The words some, somebody, somewhere etc are used most often in affirmative sentences. In other kinds of sentence they are often replaced by any, anybody, anywhere etc. Words like any, anybody etc are called 'non-affirmative' or non-assertive' forms. Other non-affirmative forms are yet and ever.

non-identifying (or non-defining) relative clause a relative clause which does not identify the noun it refers to (because we already know which person or thing is meant). Example: There's Hannah Smith, who tried to steal my cat. (The relative clause, who tried to steal my cat, does not identify the person - she is already identified by the name Hannah Smith.) See also identifying relative clause.

noun a word like oil, memory, arm, which can be used with an article. Nouns are most often the names of people or things. Personal names (e.g. George) and place names (e.g. Birmingham) are called 'proper nouns'; they are usually used without articles.

noun phrase a group of words (e.g. article + adjective + noun) which acts as the subject, object or complement in a clause. Example: the last bus.

number the way in which differences between singular and plural are shown grammatically. The differences between house and houses, mouse and mice, this and these are differences of number.

object a noun phrase or pronoun that normally comes after the verb in an active clause. The direct object most often refers to a person or thing (or people or things) affected by the action of the verb. In the sentence Take the dog for a walk, the dog is the direct object. The indirect object usually refers to a person (or people) who receivers) the direct object. In the sentence Ann gave me a watch, the indirect object is me, and the direct object is a watch. See also subject.

participle see present participle and past participle.

participle clause a clause-like structure which contains a participle, not a verb tense. Examples: Discouraged by his failure, he resigned from his job; Having a couple of hours to spare, I went to see a film.

passive A passive verb form is made with be + past participle. Examples: is broken; was told; will be helped (but not breaks, told, will help, which are active verb forms). The subject of a passive verb form is usually the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. Compare: They sent Lucas to prison for five years (active) and Lucas was sent to prison for five years (passive). See also active.

past participle a verb form like broken, gone, stopped, which can be used to form perfect tenses and passives, or as an adjective. (The meaning is not necessarily past, in spite of the name.)

past perfect a verb form made with had + past participle. Examples: I had forgotten; The children had arrived; She had been working, It had been raining. The first two examples are simple past perfect; the last two (with had been + ... ing) are past perfect progressive (or continuous).

past progressive (or continuous) a verb form made with was/were + ... ing. Examples: I was going, They were stopping.

past simple see simple past.

perfect a verb form made with the auxiliary have + past participle. Examples: I have forgotten; She had failed; having arrived; to have finished.

perfect conditional should/would have + past participle. Examples: I should/would have agreed; He would have known.

perfect infinitive (to) have + past participle. Example: to have arrived.

person the way in which, in grammar, we show the difference between the person(s) speaking (first person), the person(s) spoken to (second person), and the person, people or thing(s) spoken about (third person). The differences between I and you, or between am, are and is, are differences of person.

personal pronouns the words I, me, you, he, him etc.

phrase two or more words that function together as a group. Examples: dead tired; the silly old woman; would have been repaired; in the country.

phrasal verb a verb form that is made up of two parts: verb + adverb particle. Examples: fill up; run over; take in.

plural grammatical form used to refer to more than one person or thing. Examples: we; buses; children; are; many; these. See also singular.

possessive a form used to show possession and similar ideas. Examples: John's; our; mine.

possessive pronoun My, your, his, her etc are possessive pronouns (they stand for 'the speaker's', 'the hearer's', 'that person's' etc). Mine, yours, his, hers etc are also possessive pronouns, for the same reason. My, your etc are used before nouns, so they are not only pronouns, but also determiners. (They are often called 'possessive adjectives', but this is not correct.) Mine, yours etc are used without following nouns.

postmodifier a word that comes after the word which it modifies, e.g. invited in The people invited all came late. See also premodifier.

predicative Adjectives placed after a verb like be, seem, look are in predicative position. Examples: The house is enormous; She looks happy. See also attributive.

prefix a form like ex-, anti- or un-, which can be added to the front of a word to give an additional or different meaning. Examples: ex-wife, anti-British, unhappy. See also suffix.

premodifier a word that comes before the word which it modifies, e.g. invited in an invited audience. See also postmodifier.

preparatory subject, preparatory object When the subject of a sentence is an infinitive or a clause, we usually put it towards the end of the sentence and use the pronoun it as a preparatory subject. Example: It is important to get enough sleep. It can also be used as a preparatory object in certain structures. Example: He made it clear that he disagreed. There is used as a kind of preparatory subject in there is ... and similar structures. Example: There is somebody at the door.

preposition a word like on, off, of, into, normally followed by a noun or pronoun.

prepositional verb a verb form that is made up of two parts: verb form + preposition. Examples: insist on; care for; listen to.

present participle the form of a verb ending in -ing, used as an adjective, a verb or part of a verb. Examples: a crying baby; Opening his newspaper, he started to read; She was running. (The meaning is not necessarily present, in spite of the name.) See also gerund.

present perfect a verb form made with have/has + past participle. Examples: I have forgotten; The children have arrived; I've been working all day; It has been raining. The first two examples are simple present perfect; the last two (with have been + ... ing) are present perfect progressive (or present perfect continuous) .

present progressive (or continuous) a verb form made with am/are/is + ... ing. Examples: I am going; She is staying for two weeks.

present simple see simple present.

progressive (or continuous) A verb form made with the auxiliary be + ... ing. Examples: to be going; We were wondering; I'll be seeing you.

progressive (or continuous) infinitive a form like to be going; to be waiting.

pronoun a word like it, yourself, their, which is used instead of a more precise noun or noun phrase (like the cat, Peter's self, the family's). The word pronoun can also be used for a determiner when this includes the meaning of a following noun which has been left out. Example: I'll take these.

proper noun or proper name a noun (most often with no article) which is the name of a particular person, place, organisation etc. Examples: Andrew, Brazil; the European Union.

quantifier a determiner like many, few, little, several, which is used in a noun phrase to show how much or how many we are talking about.

question tag an expression like do you? or isn't it?, consisting of an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be or have) + pronoun subject, put on to the end of a sentence. Examples: You don't eat meat, do you?; It's a nice day, isn't it?

reflexive pronoun myself, yourself, himself etc. Example: I cut myself shaving this morning. See also emphatic pronoun.

regular following the normal rules or having the usual form. Hoped is a regular past tense; cats is a regular plural. See also irregular.

relative clause a clause which modifies a noun, usually introduced by a relative pronoun like who or which. Example: I like people who like me. See also identifying relative clause, non-identifying relative clause.

relative pronoun a pronoun used to connect a relative clause to its noun. Who, whom, whose, which and that can be used as relative pronouns, and sometimes also when, where and why. Examples: There's the man who wants to buy my car; This is the room which needs painting; Do you remember the day when we met?

reply question a question (similar in structure to a question tag) used to reply to a statement, for instance to express interest. Example: I've been invited to spend the weekend in London. ~ Have you, dear?

second person see person.

sentence a group of words that expresses a statement, command, question or exclamation. A sentence consists of one or more clauses, and usually has at least one subject and verb. In writing, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

short answer an answer consisting of a subject and an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be or have). Examples: Has anybody phoned the police? ~ John has.; Who's ready for more? ~ I am.

simple past (or past simple) a past verb form that has no auxiliary verb in the affirmative. Examples: I stopped; You heard; We knew.

simple present (or present simple) a present verb form that has no auxiliary verb in the affirmative. Examples: He goes there often; I know; I like chocolate.

simple a verb form that is not progressive.

singular a grammatical form used to talk about one person, thing, etc, or about an uncountable quantity or mass. Examples: me; bus; water; is; much; this. See also plural.

slang a word, expression or special use of language found mainly in very informal speech, often in the usage of particular groups of people. Examples: thick (= stupid); lose one's cool (= get upset); sparks (= electrician).

split infinitive a structure in which an adverb comes between to and the rest of the infinitive. Example: to easily understand. Some people consider split infinitives 'incorrect', but they are common in standard usage.

standard A standard form of a language is the one that is most generally accepted for use in government, the law, business, education and literature. I'm not is standard English; I ain't is non-standard.

statement a sentence which gives information; not a question. Examples: I'm cold; Philip didn't come home last night.

stress the way in which one or more parts of a word, phrase or sentence are made to sound more important than the rest, by using a louder voice and/or higher pitch. In the word particular, the main stress is on the second syllable (parTIcular); in the sentence Where's the new secretary? there are three stresses (WHERE'S the NEW SEcretary?).

strong form, weak form Certain words can be pronounced in two ways: slowly and carefully with the vowel that is written (strong form), or with a quicker pronunciation with the vowel /ə/ or /ɪ/ (weak form). Examples: can (/kæn/, /kən/), was (/wɒz/, /wəz/), for (/fɔ:(r)/, /fə(r)/).

subject a noun phrase or pronoun that normally comes before the verb in an affirmative clause. It often says (in an active clause) who or what does the action that the verb refers to. Examples: Helen gave me a wonderful smile; Oil floats on water. See also object.

subjunctive a verb form (not very common in British English) used in certain structures. Examples: If I were you ... ; It's important that he be informed immediately; We prefer that he pay in cash.

subordinate clause a clause which functions as part of another clause, for example as subject, object or adverbial in the main clause of a sentence. Examples: I thought that you understood; What I need is a drink; I'll follow you wherever you go. See also clause, main clause.

suffix a form like -ology, -able or -ese, which can be added to the end of a word to give an additional or different meaning. Examples: climatology; understandable; Chinese. See also prefix.

superlative the form of an adjective or adverb made with the suffix -est (e.g. oldest, fastest); also the structure most + adjective/adverb, used in the same way (e.g. most intelligent, most politely).

swearword a taboo word used (usually with a change of meaning) to express strong emotion or emphasis. Example: Fuck!

syllable The word cat has one syllable, cattle has two, cataract has three and category has four. A syllable normally has a vowel, and usually one or more consonants before and/or after it. Sometimes the consonant sounds l, m and n can act as syllables (for instance in the words bottle /'bɒtl/, capitalism /'kæpɪtəlɪzm/, button /'bʌtn/).

taboo word a word (e.g. fuck) connected with a subject (such as sex) which is not talked about freely, so that some of its vocabulary is considered shocking. Taboo words are not used in formal speech or writing, and are avoided altogether by many people. See also swearword.

tag a short phrase (e.g. pronoun subject + auxiliary verb) added on to the end of a sentence, especially in speech. Examples: He likes to talk, John does; You can't swim, can you?; Very noisy, those kids. See also question tag.

tense a verb form that shows the time of an action, event or state. Examples: will go; is sitting; saw.

third person see person.

transitive a transitive verb is one that can have an object. Examples: eat (a meal); drive (a car); give (a present). See also intransitive.

uncountable noun a noun which has no plural form and cannot normally be used with the article a/an. Examples: mud; rudeness; furniture.

verb a word like ask, wake, play, be, can, which can be used with a subject to form the basis of a clause. In clauses, verbs often consist of an auxiliary verb + infinitive or participle (e.g. will go; has spoken). Most verbs refer to actions, events or states. See also auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary verb, verb phrase.

verb phrase a verb that has more than one part. Example: would have been forgotten.

vowel the letters a, e, i, o, u and their combinations, and their usual sounds (see phonetic alphabet). See also consonant.

weak form see strong form.

Don't say it! 130 common mistakes

35 basic mistakes to avoid. 

Check in the sections to see why they're wrong.

DON'T SAY/WRITE | SAY/WRITE | SEE SECTION
Look - it rains. | Look - it's raining | 461-464
It's often raining here. | It often rains here. | 461-464
When I was 20 I was smoking. | When I was 20 I smoked. | 422
I have seen Louis yesterday. | I saw Louis yesterday. | 456
We're living here since April. | We've been living here since April. | 460
I'll phone you when I will arrive. | I'll phone you when I arrive. | 212
I'm not believing him. | I don't believe him. | 471
I am born in Chicago. | I was born in Chicago. | 108
My sister has 15years. | My sister is 15 (years old). | 32
I have cold in this house. | I am cold in this house. | 92
I can to swim. | I can swim. | 121
I must see the dentist yesterday. | I had to see the dentist yesterday. | 358
I want go home. | I want to go home. | 613
I came here for study English. | I came here to study English. | 289
I drove there without to stop. | I drove there without stopping. | 298
Where I can buy stamps? | Where can I buy stamps? | 480
Is ready my new office? | Is my new office ready? | 480
I'm no asleep. | I'm not asleep. | 382
She looked, but she didn't see nothing. | ... she didn't see anything. / ... she saw nothing. | 370
Where is station? | Where is the station? | 62
My sister is photographer. | My sister is a photographer. | 62
You speak a very good English. | You speak very good English. | 149
The life is difficult. | Life is difficult. | 68
I haven't got some free time today. | I haven't got any free time today. | 547
Everybody were late. | Everybody was late. | 548
It is more cold today. | It is colder today. | 137
It's too much hot in this house. | It's too hot in this house. | 595
The man which lives here is from Greece. | The man who lives here is from Greece. | 494
The people in this town is very friendly. | The people in this town are very friendly. | 524
She never listens me. | She never listens to me. | 449
We went at the seaside on Sunday. | We went to the seaside on Sunday. | 80
I like very much skiing. | I very much like skiing. / I like skiing very much. | 611
This soup isn't enough hot. | This soup isn't hot enough. | 187
I gave to her my address. | I gave her my address. | 610
I have done a mistake. | I have made a mistake. | 160

35 mistakes that intermediate students often make. 

Check in the sections to see why they're wrong.

DON'T SAY/WRITE | SAY/WRITE | SEE SECTION
I promise I pay you tomorrow. | I promise I'll pay you tomorrow. | 217
This is the first time I'm here. | ... the first time I've been here. | 591
I've been here since three days. | ... for three days. | 208
If I'll have time, I'll go home. | If I have time, ... | 257
If I knew the price, I will tell you. | ... I would tell you. | 258
He said me that he was Chinese. | He told me that he was Chinese. | 504
She told me she has a headache. | She told me she had a headache. | 275
There's the man that I work for him. | There's the man that I work for. | 494
I've told you all what I know. | ... all (that) I know. | 494
Although it was late, but she went out. | Although it was late, she went out. | 511
You have better to see the doctor. | You had better see the doctor. | 230
I use to play tennis at weekends. | I play tennis at weekends. | 604
It can rain this evening. | It may/might/could rain… | 345
My parents wanted that I study. | My parents wanted me to study. | 283
You must stop to smoke. | ... stop smoking. | 299
I look forward to see you. | I look forward to seeing you. | 298
I'm boring in the lessons. | I'm bored in the lessons. | 409
He has much money. | He has a lot of / plenty of money. | 357
Most of people agree with me. | Most people ... | 356
I looked at me in the mirror. | I looked at myself ... | 493
We waited during six hours. | ... for six hours. | 167
I like eating chocolate milk. | ... milk chocolate. | 385
Come here and look at that paper. | Come here and look at this paper. | 589
We go there every Saturdays. | ... every Saturday. | 193
Which is the biggest city of the world? | ... the biggest city in the world? | 139
I'm thinking to change my job. | I'm thinking of changing my job. | 588
Can you give me an information? | ... some information? | 148
He's married with a doctor. | He's married to a doctor. | 449
Can you mend this until Tuesday? | ... by Tuesday? | 602
There's a hotel in front of our house. | ... opposite our house. | 402
I like warm countries, as Spain. | ... warm countries, like Spain. | 326
Please explain me what you want. | ... explain to me .... | 198
When you come, take your bike. | ... bring your bike. | 112
My brother has got a new work. | ... a new job. | 148
He's Dutch, or better Belgian. | He's Dutch, or rather Belgian. | 157

Even advanced students make mistakes. Here are 35. 

Check in the sections to see why they're wrong.

DON'T SAY/WRITE | SAY/WRITE | SEE SECTION
I'll ask you in case I need help. | I'll ask you if I need help. | 271
I object to tell them my age. | I object to telling them my age. | 298
I like the 60s music. | I like 60s music. / the music of the 60s. | 69
ten thousand, a hundred and six | ten thousand, one hundred… | 389
'Who's that?' ~ 'He's John.' | ... 'It's John.' | 428
I don't like to be shouted. | I don't like to be shouted at. | 416
It's ages since she's arrived. | It's ages since she arrived. | 522
The police is looking for him. | The police are looking. . . | 524
Prices are surely rising fast. | Prices are certainly rising fast. | 573
I have big respect for her ideas. | ... great respect. | 106
I don't like nowadays fashions. | ... today's/modern fashions. | 388
She passed her exam, what surprised everybody. | ... which surprised everybody. | 494
I've good knowledge of German. | ... a good knowledge of German. | 149
Finally! Where have you been? | At last! … | 204
I'll be home since 3 0' clock. | ... from 3 0' clock. | 308
We waited one and a half hour. | ... one and a half hours. | 231
It's time they go home. | It's time they went home. | 306
I'll see you a few days later. | ... in a few days. | 315
All along the centuries, there have been wars. | All through the centuries ... | 45
I want a completely other colour. | ... a completely different colour. | 54
Let's go and have coffee to Marcel's. | ... at Marcel's. | 80
That's mine -I saw it at first! | ... I saw it first! | 84
Switzerland is among Germany, France, Austria and Italy. | ... between Germany, France, Austria and Italy. | 105
According to me, it's a bad film. | In my opinion / I think. .. | 8
It was a too good party to miss. | ...too good a party … | 14
Whole Paris was celebrating. | The whole of Paris … | 40
I nearly wish I'd stayed at home. | I almost wish … | 43
One speaks Italian in my town. | We/They speak... | 396
The girl wants an own room. | ... her own room. | 405
Couldn't you help me, please? | Could you ... ? / You couldn't ... , could you? | 368
I'll try to know when it starts. | I'll try to find out when it starts. | 313
I love this so beautiful country. | ... this country -it's so beautiful. | 538
It's getting winter. | It's getting to be winter. | 223
Our flat is decorated this week. | ... is being decorated. | 412
The Mont Blanc is 4808m high. | Mont Blanc is ... | 70

Even very advanced students can make mistakes - nobody's perfect! Here are 25.

Do you know why they're wrong? Check in the sections.

DON'T SAY/WRITE | SAY/WRITE | SEE SECTION
No doubt the world is getting warmer. | There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer. | 377
I can't think of anybody whom to invite. | I can't think of anybody to invite. | 498
My father, whom we hope will be out of hospital soon, ... | My father, who we hope… | 498
Would you follow me wherever I would go? | ... wherever I went? | 580
We all have to live in the society. | ... in society. | 68
The number of the unemployed is going up. | The number of unemployed… | 70
She was showing tiredness signs. | ... signs of tiredness. | 382
She works the hardest when she's working for her family. | She works hardest… | 141
I'm thankful for your help. | I'm grateful... | 582
We talked about if it was ready. | ... about whether it was ready. | 453
What live in those little holes? | What lives … | 532
Some people are interested, but the majority doesn't care. | ... the majority don't care. | 526
It mustn't be the postman at the door. It's only 7 0' clock. | It can't be the postman… | 359
A third of the students is from abroad. | ... are from abroad. | 389
Except Angie,everybody was there. | Except for Angie … | 194
I wish you felt / would feel better tomorrow. | I hope you feel … | 630
The train may be late, as it happened yesterday. | ... as happened yesterday. | 581
When I wrote my letters, I did some gardening. | When I had written … | 424
When I had opened the door, the children ran in. | When I opened… | 424
Stefan can never return back to his country. | ... return to his country. / .... go back to his country. | 87
Will you go and see me when I'm in hospital? | ... come and see me … | 134
May you go camping this summer? | Do you think you'll go … | 339
My cousin works for the NATO. | ... for NATO. | 2
My wife will be angry unless I'm home by 7,00. | ... if I'm not home… | 601
We were poured water on. | We had water poured on us. / Water was poured on us. | 416

Phonetic alphabet

It is necessary to use a special alphabet to show the pronunciation of English words, because the ordinary English alphabet does not have enough letters to represent all the sounds of the language. The following list contains all the letters of the phonetic alphabet used in this book, with examples of the words in which the sounds they refer to are found.

Vowels and diphthongs (double vowels)

i:
seat /si:t/
feel /fi:l/
eɪ
take /teɪk/
wait /weɪt/

ɪ
sit /sɪt/
in /ɪn/
aɪ
mine /maɪn/
light /laɪt/

e
set /set/
any /'eni:/
ɔɪ
oil /ɔɪl/
boy/bɔɪ/

æ
sat /sæt/
match /mætʃ/
əʊ
no /nəʊ/
open /'əʊpən/

ɑ:
march /mɑ:tʃ/,
after /'ɑ:ftə(r)/
aʊ
house /haʊs/
now /naʊ/

ɒ
pot /pɒt/
gone /gɒn/
ɪə
hear /hɪə(r)/
deer /dɪə(r)/

ɔ:
port /pɔ:t/
law /lɔ:/
eə
air /eə(r)/
where /weə(r)/

ʊ
good /gʊd/
could /kʊd/
ʊə
tour /tʊə(r)/
endure /ɪn'djʊə(r)/

u:
food /fu:d/
group /gru:p/

ʌ
much /mʌtʃ/
front /frʌnt/

ɜ:
turn /tɜ:n/
word /wɜ:d/

ə
away /əweɪ/
collect /kə'lekt/,
until /ən'tɪl/

Consonants

p
pull /pʊl/
cup /kʌp/
tʃ
cheap /tʃi:p/
catch /kætʃ/

b
bull /bʊl/
rob /rɒb/
dʒ
jail /dʒeɪl/
bridge /brɪdʒ/

f
ferry /'feri:/
life /laɪf/
k
case /keɪs/
take /teɪk/

v
veri /veri:/
live /lɪv/
g
go /gəʊ/
rug /rʌg/

θ
think /θɪŋk/
bath /bɑ:θ/
m
my /maɪ/
come /kʌm/

ð
then /ðen/
with /wɪð/
n
no /nəʊ/
on /ɒn/

t
take /teɪk/
set /set/
ŋ
sing /sɪŋ/
finger /'fɪŋgə(r)/

d
day /deɪ/
red /red/
l
love /lʌv/
hole /həʊl/

s
sing /sɪŋ/
rice /raɪs/
r
round /raʊnd/
carry /'kæri:/

z
zoo /zu:/
days /deɪz/
w
well /wel/

ʃ
show /ʃɪʊ/
wish /wɪʃ/
j
young /jʌŋ/

ʒ
pleasure /'pleʒə(r)/,
occasion /ə'keɪʒən/
h
house /haʊs/

The sign (') shows stress (see 554).

1 abbreviated styles

Some styles of writing and speech have their own special grammar rules, often because of the need to save space or time.

1 advertisements and instructions

Small ads and instructions often leave out articles, subject or object pronouns, forms of be and prepositions.

Single man looking for flat Oxford area. Phone 806127 weekends.
Job needed urgently. Will do anything legal. Call 312654.
Pour mixture into large saucepan, heat until boiling, then add three pounds sugar and leave on low heat for 45 minutes.

2 notes

Informal notes, to-do lists, diary entries etc often follow similar rules.

Gone to hairdresser. Back 12.30.
Book tickets phone Ann see foe 11.00 meeting Sue lunch

The same style is common in postcards, short informal letters and emails (see 147).

Dear Gran
Watching tennis on TV. A good book. Three meals a day. No washing-up.
Clean sheets every day. Everything done for me. Yes, you've guessed - in hospital!!
Only went to doctor for cold -landed up in hospital with pneumonia!! If you have time please tell the others - would love some letters to cheer me up.
Hope to see you.
Love, Pam

3 commentaries

Commentaries on fast-moving events like football matches also have their own kind of grammar. Auxiliaries and other less important verbs are often left out.

Goal kick And the score still Spurs 3, Arsenall that's Pearce ... Pearce to Coates good ball ... Sawyer running wide Billings takes it, through to Mattheuis, Matthews with a cross, oh, and Billings in beautifully, a good chance there - and it's a goal!

4 titles, notices etc

Titles, labels, headings, notices and slogans usually consist of short phrases, not complete sentences. Articles are often left out, especially in the names of buildings and institutions.

ROYAL HOTEL
INFORMATION OFFICE
MORE MONEY FOR NURSES'

5 headlines

News headlines have their own special grammar and vocabulary. For details, see 240.

RECORD DRUGS HAUL AT AIRPORT: SIX HELD
FOUR DIE IN M6 BLAZE

For other rules about leaving words out ('ellipsis'), see 177-182.

2 abbreviations and acronyms

1 punctuation

We usually write abbreviations without full stops in modern British English. Full stops (AmE 'periods') are normal in American English.

Mr (AmE Mr.) = Mister (not usually written in full)
kg (AmE kg.) = kilogram Ltd = limited (company)

2 initial-letter abbreviations

Some abbreviations are made from the first letters of several words. This often happens with the names of organisations.

the BBC = the British Broadcasting Corporation

These abbreviations are most often stressed on the last letter.

the BBC /ðə bi: bi: 'si:/ the USA /ðə ju: es 'eɪ/

If one of these abbreviations has an article (a/an or the), the form and pronunciation of the article depend on the pronunciation of the first letter of the abbreviation. Compare:

- an EU country
a US diplomat /ə ju: ... / (NOT an US ... )
- a BA degree
an MP /ən em .../ (NOT a MP)
- the USA /ðə ju: .../ (NOT /ði: ju .../)
the RSPCA /ði: ɑ:r .../ (NOT /ðə ɑ:r .../)

3 acronyms

Some initial-letter abbreviations are pronounced like words. These are often called acronyms. Articles are usually dropped in acronyms.

UNESCO /ju:'neskəʊ/ (NOT the UNESCO) = the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Note that not all initial-letter abbreviations are pronounced as words.

the CIA /si: aɪ 'eɪ/ (NOT /'sɪə/) the IRA /aɪ ɑ:r 'eɪ/ (NOT /'aɪrə/

4 plurals

An apostrophe (') is sometimes used before the s in the plurals of abbreviations.

MP's, CD's OR (more often) MPs, CDs.

For abbreviations used in text messages (e.g. hope 2 c u for hope to see you), see 147.
For a list of common abbreviations, see a good dictionary.

3 [be] able

We use able especially in the structure be able + infinitive. This often has the same meaning as can (see 122). There is a negative form unable.

Some people are able to / can walk on their hands.
I am unable to / can't understand what she wants.

Can is preferred in the sense of 'know how to', and in expressions like can see, can hear etc (see 125).

Can you knit? (More natural than Are you able to knit?)
I can see a ship. (More natural than I am able to see a ship.)

Be able is used in cases (e.g. future, present perfect) where can/could is not grammatically possible because it has no infinitive or participles (see 121.1d).

One day scientists will be able to find a cure for cancer. (NOT ... will can find ... )
What have you been able to find out? (NOT What have you could ... ?)
I might be able to help you. (NOT I might can ... )

Able is not often followed by passive infinitives.

He can't be understood. (More natural than He's not able to be understood.)

For differences between could and was able, see 122.5, 123.2.

4 about and on

Compare:

- a book for children about Africa and its peoples
  a textbook on African history
- a conversation about money
  a lecture on economics

We use about to talk about ordinary, more general kinds of communication. On suggests that a book, talk etc is more serious, suitable for specialists.

5 about to

About + infinitive (with to) means 'going to very soon'; 'just going to'.

Don't go out now - we're about to have lunch.
I was about to go to bed when the telephone rang.

Not about to can mean 'unwilling to'.

I'm not about to pay 100 dollars for that dress.

6 above and over

1 'higher than': above or over

Above and over can both mean 'higher than'. Above is more common with this meaning.

The water came up above/over our knees.
Can you see the helicopter above/over the palace?

2 'not directly over': above

We use above when one thing is not directly over another.

We've got a little house above the lake. (NOT ... over the lake.)

3 'covering': over

We prefer over when one thing covers and/or touches another.

There is cloud over the South of England.
He put on a coat over his pajamas.

We use over or across (see 9) when one thing crosses another.

The plane was flying over/across Denmark.
Electricity cables stretch over/across the fields.

4 measurements: above

Above is used in measurements of temperature and height, and in other cases where we think of a vertical scale.

The temperature is three degrees above zero.
The summit of Everest is about 8000 metres above sea level.
She's well above average in intelligence.

5 ages, speeds, 'more than': over

We usually use over, not above, to talk about ages and speeds, and to mean 'more than'.

You have to be over 18 to see this film.
The police said she was driving at over 110 mph.
There were over 100,000 people at the festival.

6 books and papers

In a book or paper, above means 'written before'.

The above rules and regulations apply to all students.

For prices and delivery charges, see above.

See over means 'look on the next page'.

There are cheap flights at weekends: see over.

The difference between below and under is similar. See 100.

For other meanings of these words, see a good dictionary.

7 accept and agree

Before an infinitive, we usually use agree, not accept.

I agreed to meet them here. (More normal than I accepted to meet ... )

8 according to

According to X means 'in X's opinion', 'if what X says is true'.

According to Harry, it's a good film.

The train gets in at 8.27, according to the timetable.

We do not usually give our own opinions with according to. Compare:

According to Ann, her boyfriend is brilliant.

(= If what Ann says is true, ... )

In my opinion, Ann's boyfriend is an idiot. (NOT According to me, ... )

9 across, over and through

1 on/to the other side of (line): across and over

Across and over can both be used to mean 'on or to the other side of a line, river, road, bridge etc'.

His village is just across/over the border.

See if you can jump across/over the stream.

2 high things: over preferred

We prefer over to say 'on/to the other side of something high'.

Why are you climbing over the wall? (NOT ... across the wall?)

3 flat areas: across preferred

We usually prefer across to say 'on/to the other side of a flat area or surface'.

He walked right across the desert.

It took them six hours to row across the lake.

4 the adverb over (to)

Note that the adverb over has a wider meaning than the preposition over. We often use over (to) for short journeys.

I'm going over to John's. Shall we drive over and see your mother?

5 across and through

The difference between across and through is like the difference between on and in. Through, unlike across, is used for a movement in a three-dimensional space, with things on all sides. Compare:

- We walked across the ice. (We were on the ice.)

  I walked through the wood. (I was in the wood.)

- We drove across the desert.

  We drove through several towns.

For over and above. see 6.

For across from (AmE), see 402.1.

For other uses of these words, see a good dictionary.

10 active verb forms

1 future, present and past; simple, progressive and perfect

English verbs can refer to future, present or past time.

future: She will see you tomorrow.

present: I'm watching you.

past: Who said that?

For each kind of time, there are three possibilities with most verbs: simple, progressive (be + -ing) and perfect (have + past participle).

simple present: I start

present progressive: I am starting

present perfect: I have started

2 verb forms ('tenses') and time

There is not a direct relationship between verb forms and time. For example, a past verb like went is not only used to talk about past events (e.g. We went to Morocco last January), but also about unreal or uncertain present or future events (e.g. It would be better if we went home now). And present verbs can be used to talk about the future (e.g. I'm seeing Peter tomorrow). Also, progressive and perfect forms express ideas that are not simply concerned with time - for example continuation, completion, present importance.

3 progressive forms

Progressive (or 'continuous') forms are used especially when we describe an event as going on or continuing (perhaps at a particular time, or up to a particular time). See 470-472 for more details.

I can't talk to you now; I'm working.

When you phoned I was working in the garage.

I was tired because I had been working all day.

4 perfect forms

Perfect forms are used, for example, when we want to suggest a connection between a past event and the present, or between an earlier and a later past event; or when we want to say that something is/was/will be completed by a particular time. See 427 for more details.

I have worked with children before, so I know what to expect in my new job.

After I had worked with fake for a few weeks, I felt I knew him pretty well.

I will have worked 10 hours by suppertime.

Perfect progressive forms are also possible.

I've been working all day.

5 table of active verb forms

This is a list of all the active affirmative forms of an ordinary English verb, with their names, examples, and very brief descriptions of typical uses. For more information about the forms and their uses, see the entries for each one.

NAME
CONSTRUCTION
EXAMPLE
TYPICAL USE

(simple) future
will + infinitive
I/we shall also possible
It will rain tomorrow.
information about the future (see 212)

future progressive
will be .. .ing
I/we shall also possible
This time tomorrow I'll be lying on the beach.
continuing situation at a particular future time (see 220)

future perfect
will have + past participle
I/we shall also possible
I will have finished the repairs by this evening.
completion by a particular future time (see 219)

future perfect progressive
will have been ... ing
I/we shall also possible
In June I will have been working here for ten years.
continuity up to a particular future time (see 219)

simple present
same as infinitive, but -s on third person singular (e.g. I/you/we/they work; he/she works)
It always rains in November.
'general' time; permanent situations (see 463)

present progressive
am/are/ is .. .ing
I can't talk to you now; I'm working.
actions continuing at the moment of speaking (see 464)

present perfect
have/has + past participle
I have worked with children before, so I know what to expect.
past action with some present connection (see 455)

present perfect progressive
have/has been .. .ing
It has been raining all day.
continuation up to the present (see 458)

simple past
regular verbs: infinitive + -(e)d irregular verbs: various forms
I worked all last weekend. I saw John yesterday.
past events (see 421)

past progressive
was/were … ing
I saw John when I was coming out of the supermarket.
action continuing at a particular past time (see 422)

past perfect
had + past participle
I couldn't get in because I had lost my keys.
action before a particular past time (see 423)

past perfect progressive
had been …ing
I was tired because I had been working all day.
continuation up to a particular past time (see 425)

For irregular past tenses and past participles, see 304.

For question forms, see 480. For negatives, see 367.

For the use of present forms to talk about the future, see 213-216.

For past verbs with present or future meanings, see 426.

For 'conditional' forms (would + infinitive), see 633 and 258-259.

For subjunctives (e.g.... that she go), see 567.

For passive verb forms, see 412.

For infinitives, see 280. For imperatives, see 268.

For -ing forms, see 293. For auxiliary verbs, see 85.

For verb forms constructed with modal auxiliary verbs, see 353.

11 actual(ly)

1 meaning and use

Actual means 'real'; actually means 'really' or 'in fact'.

They are used to make things clearer, more precise or more definite.

It's over 100 kilos. Let me look. Yes, the actual weight is 108 kilos.

I've got a new job. Actually, they've made me sales manager.

Did you enjoy your holiday? ~ Very much, actually.

Actual and actually often introduce surprising or unexpected information.

It takes me an hour to drive to work, although the actual distance is only 20 miles.

She was so angry that she actually tore up the letter.

How did you get on with my car?~ Well, actually, I'm terribly sorry, I'm

afraid I had a crash.

He's twelve, but he actually still believes in Father Christmas.

They can be used to correct mistakes or misunderstandings.

The book says she died aged 47, but her actual age was 43.

Hello, John. Nice to see you. ~ Actually, my name's Andy.

Actually is more common in British than American English.

2 'false friends'

Actual and actually are 'false friends' for people who speak some languages. They do not mean the same as, for example, actuel(lement), aktuell, or attual(ment)e. We express these ideas with present, current, up to date, at this moment, now, at present.

What's our current financial position?

(NOT ... our actual financial position?)

In 1900 the population of London was higher than it is now.

(NOT ... than it actually is.)

12 adjectives (1): normal position

1 two positions

Most adjectives can go in two main places in a sentence.

a) with a noun, usually before it. This is called 'attributive position'.

The new secretary doesn't like me.

He's going out with a rich businesswoman.

In older English (see 392), it was quite common to put adjectives after nouns, especially in poetry and songs.

He came from his palace grand.

In modern English, this only happens in a few cases (see 13).

For adjectives before personal pronouns (e.g. Poor you!), see 429.7.

b) after be, seem, look, become and other 'link verbs' (see 328). This is called 'predicative position'.

That dress is new, isn't it?

She looks rich. I feel unhappy.

2 adjectives used only before nouns

Some adjectives are used only (or mostly) before nouns. After verbs, other words must be used. Common examples:

elder and eldest Compare: My elder sister is a pilot. She's three years older than me.

live /laiv / (meaning 'not dead') Compare: a live fish  It's still alive.

old (referring to relationships that have lasted a long time)

an old friend (not the same as a friend who is old)

little (see 534) Compare: a nice little house. The house is quite small.

intensifying (emphasising) adjectives

He's a mere child. (BUT NOT That child is mere.)

It's sheer madness. (BUT NOT That madness is sheer.)

You bloody fool! (BUT NOT That fool is boody.)

3 adjectives used only after verbs

Some adjectives beginning with a-, and a few others, are used mainly after link verbs, especially be. Common examples: afloat, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake. Compare:

- The baby's asleep. a sleeping baby (NOT an asleep baby)

- The ship's still afloat. a floating leaf

- He was afraid. a frightened man

The adjectives ill (see 266) and well (see 617) are most common after verbs. Before nouns, many people prefer other words. Compare:

- He's very well. - You look ill.

a healthy/fit man. Nurses take care of sick people.

4 verb + object + adjective

Another possible position for adjectives is after the object, in the structure verb + object + adjective.

I'll get the car ready.

Do I make you happy? Let's paint the kitchen yellow.

For the order of adjectives and other modifiers before nouns, see 15.

For and between adjectives, see 16.

For commas between adjectives, see 15.6.

13 adjectives (2): after nouns and pronouns

Adjectives come immediately after nouns in a few special cases.

1 fixed phrases

Adjectives come after nouns in some fixed phrases.

Secretary General,  President elect

court martial (= military court), God Almighty!

Poet Laureate, Attorney General

The Secretary General of the United Nations has called for new peace talks.

2 available, possible etc.

Some adjectives can be used after nouns in a similar way to relative clauses. This is common with adjectives ending in -able/-ible.

Send all the tickets available I available tickets.

(= ... tickets which are available.)

It's the only solution possible I possible solution.

Some adverbs can also be used like this.

the woman upstairs,  the people outside

3 present, proper

Before a noun, present refers to time; after a noun it means 'here/there', 'not absent'. Compare:

the present members (= those who are members now)

the members present (= those who are/were at the meeting)

Before a noun, proper means 'real', 'genuine'. After a noun it refers to the

central or main part of something. Compare:

Snowdon's a proper mountain, not a hill.

After two days crossing the foothills, they reached the mountain proper.

For the position and meaning of opposite, see 401.

4 expressions of measurement

Adjectives usually follow measurement nouns.

two metres high, ten years older, two miles long, six feet deep

Exception: worth (e.g. worth 100 euros). See 632.

5 adjectives with complements

When an adjective has its own complement (e.g. skilled in design), the whole expression normally comes after a noun ...

We are looking for people skilled in design. (NOT ... skilled in design people.)

A relative clause is often more natural.

We are looking for people who are skilled in design.

In some cases an adjective can be put before a noun and its complement after it. This happens with different, similar, the same, next, last, first, second etc; comparatives and superlatives; and a few other adjectives like difficult and easy.

a different life from this one,  the second train from this platform

the next house to the Royal Hotel,  the best mother in the world

(OR the house next to the Royal Hotel),  a difficult problem to solve

6 something, everything etc

Adjectives come after something, everything, anything, nothing, somebody, anywhere and similar words.

Have you read anything interesting lately?

Let's go somewhere quiet.

14 adjectives (3): position after as, how, so, too

After as, how, so, too and this/that meaning so, adjectives go before a/an. This structure is common in a formal style.

as/how/so/too/this/that + adjective + a/an + noun

I have as good a voice as you. She is too polite a person to refuse.

How good a pianist is he? I couldn't afford that big a car.

It was so warm a day that I could hardly work.

The structure is not possible without a/an.

I like your country - it's so beautiful. (NOT I like your so beautiful country.)

Those girls are too kind to refuse. (NOT They are too kind girls to refuse.)

For the structure with adjective + as in expressions like tired as I was ... , see 71.

15 adjectives (4): order before nouns

When several adjectives come before a noun (or when nouns are used like adjectives before another noun), they are usually put in a more or less fixed order. For instance, we say a fat old lady, NOT an old fat lady; a small round black leather handbag, NOT a leather black round small handbag. Here are the most important rules.

1 description before classification: an old political idea

Words which describe come before words which classify (say what type of thing we are talking about).

description / classification / noun

an old political idea (NOT a political old idea)

the latest educational reform (NOT the educational latest reform)

a green wine bottle (NOT a wine green bottle)

leather dancing shoes (NOT dancing leather shoes)

2 opinion before description: a wonderful old house

Words which express opinions, attitudes and judgements usually come before words that simply describe. Examples are lovely, definite, pure, absolute, extreme, perfect, wonderful, silly.

opinion / description / noun

a lovely cool drink (NOT a cool lovely drink)

a wonderful old house (NOT an old wonderful house)

beautiful green mountains (NOT green beatiful mountains)

that silly fat cat  (NOT that fat silly cat)

3 order of descriptive words

The order of descriptive words is not completely fixed. Words for origin and material usually come last. Words for size, age, shape and colour often come in that order.

size / age / shape / colour / origin / material / noun

a fat old white horse

a big grey woollen sweater

new Italian boots

a small round black leather handbag

an enormous brown German glass mug

a little modern square brick house

4 numbers

Numbers usually go before adjectives.

six large eggs,  the second big shock

First, next and last most often go before one, two, three etc.

the first three days (More common than the three first days)

my last two jobs

5 noun modifiers after adjectives

Note that noun modifiers (which often classify, or refer to material) usually follow adjectives.

a big new car factory, enormous black iron gates

6 commas

Before nouns, we generally use commas between adjectives (especially in longer sequences) which give similar kinds of information, for example in physical descriptions.

a lovely, long, cool, refreshing drink

an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project

But commas can be dropped before short common adjectives.

a tall(,) dark(,) handsome cowboy

For and with adjectives. see 16. For commas with and, see 476.1.

16 adjectives (5): with and

When two or more adjectives (or other modifiers) come together, we sometimes put and before the last one and sometimes not. It depends partly on their position in the sentence.

1 after a verb

When adjectives come in predicative position (after be, seem and similar verbs - see 328), we usually put and before the last one.

He was tall, dark and handsome.

You're like a winter's day: short, dark and dirty.

In a very literary style, and is sometimes left out.

My soul is exotic, mysterious, incomprehensible.

2 before a noun

In attributive position (before a noun), and is less common.

an angry young man (NOT an angry and young man)

a big beautiful garden

However, and is possible when the adjectives give similar kinds of information, especially when we are 'piling up' favourable or unfavourable

descriptions.

a cruel (and) vicious tyrant, a warm (and) generous personality

an ill-planned, expensive (and) wasteful project.

And is necessary when two or more adjectives (or other modifiers) refer to different parts of something, or different types of thing.

a yellow and black sports car

a concrete and glass factory

hot and cold drinks (= hot drinks and cold drinks)

We also use and when we say that something belongs to two or more different classes.

It's a social and political problem. She's a musical and artistic genius.

3 nice and ...

In an informal style, the expression nice and is often used before another adjective or an adverb. It means something like 'pleasantly' or 'suitably'.

It's nice and warm in front of the fire. (= pleasantly warm)

The work was nice and easy.

Now just put your gun down nice and slow.

For more information about and, see 52

For commas with adjectives, see 15.6.

17 adjectives (6): without nouns

We cannot usually leave out a noun after an adjective.

Poor little boy! (NOT Poor little!)

The most important thing is to be happy. (NOT The most important is to be happy.)

But there are some exceptions.

1 well-known groups

The + adjective is used to talk about certain well-known groups of people who are in a particular physical or social condition. Common expressions:

the blind, the handicapped, the old, the unemployed

the dead, the jobless, the poor, the young

the deaf, the mentally ill, the rich

He's collecting money for the blind.

The unemployed are losing hope.

The meaning is usually general; occasionally a limited group is referred to.

After the accident, the injured were taken to hospital.

These expressions are normally plural: the dead means 'all dead people' or 'the dead people', but not 'the dead person'.

Note that these expressions cannot be used with a possessive 's.

the problems of the poor OR poor people's problems

(NOT the poor's problems)

Adjectives are normally only used in this way with the or a determiner likemany or more.

This government doesn't care about the poor. (NOT ... about poor.)

There are more unemployed than ever before.

However, adjectives without the are sometimes used in paired structures with both ... and ...

opportunities for both rich and poor

2 adjectives of nationality

A few adjectives of nationality ending in -sh or -ch (see 364.3) are used after the without nouns. They include Irish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish, Dutch, French.

The Irish are very proud of their sense of humour.

These expressions are plural; singular equivalents are for example an Irishwoman, a Welshman (NOT a Welsh).

Where nouns exist, these are preferred to expressions with the ... ish:

we say the Danes or the Turks (NOT the Danish OR the Turkish).

3 singular examples

In a few formal fixed phrases, the + adjective can have a singular meaning. These include the accused, the undersigned, the deceased, the former and the latter.

The accused was released on bail.

... Mr Gray and Mrs Cook; the latter is a well-known designer.

4 abstract ideas

Adjectives are sometimes used after the to refer to general abstract ideas, especially in philosophical writing. (Examples:the beautiful, the supernatural, the unreal.) These expressions are singular.

She's interested in the supernatural.

5 choices

We sometimes leave out a noun that has already been mentioned, or which does not need to be mentioned, when thinking about a choice between two or more different kinds of thing.

Have you got any bread? ~ Do you want white or brown?

I'd like two large packets and one small.

Colour adjectives can sometimes have a plural -s in this situation.

Wash the reds and blues separately. (= red and blue clothes)

6 superlatives

Nouns are often left out after superlative adjectives.

I'm the tallest in my family. We bought the cheapest.

For other structures in which nouns can be left out, see 180.

18 adjectives (7): pronunciation of aged, naked etc

A few adjectives ending in -ed have a special pronunciation: the last syllable is pronounced /ɪd/ instead of /d/ or /t/ (see 421.2).

aged /'eɪdʒɪd/ (= very old),  blessed /'blesɪd/

beloved /bɪ'Iʌvɪd/,  dogged /'dɑgɪd/

crooked /'krʊkɪd/,  learned /'lɜ:nɪd/

cursed /'kɜ:sɪd/,  sacred /'seɪkrɪd/

naked /'neɪkɪd/,  wicked /'wɪkɪd/

ragged /'rægɪd/,  wretched /'retʃɪd/

rugged /'rʌgɪd/,  one/three/four-legged /'legɪd/

Note that aged is pronounced /'eɪdʒd/ when it means 'years old' (as in He has a daughter aged ten), or when it is a verb.

19 adjectives (8): what can follow an adjective?

Many adjectives can be followed by 'complements' - words and expressions hat 'complete' their meaning. Not all adjectives are followed by the same kind of complement. Some can be followed by preposition + noun/-ing (see 297).

I'm interested in cookery. I'm interested in learning to cook.

Some can be followed by infinitives (see 284).

You don't look happy to see me. The soup is ready to eat.

An infinitive may have its own subject, introduced by for (see 291).

I'm anxious for her to get a good education.

(= I'm anxious that she should get ... )

Some adjectives can be followed by clauses (see 521, 567, 446-447).

I'm glad that you were able to come.

It's important that everybody should feel comfortable.

And many adjectives can have more than one kind of complement.

I'm pleased about her promotion. I'm pleased to see you here.

I'm pleased that we seem to agree.

We rarely put adjective + complement before a noun (see 13.5).

He's a difficult person to understand.

(NOT He's a difficult to understand person.)

For the structures that are possible with a particular adjective, see a good dictionary.

20 adverb particles

1 adverb particles and prepositions

Words like down, in, up are not always prepositions. Compare:

- I ran down the road. - He's in his office.

Please sit down. You can go in.

- Something's climbing up my leg.

She's not up yet.

In the expressions down the road, in his office and up my leg, the words down, in and up are prepositions: they have objects (the road, his office and my leg). In sit down, go in and She's not up, the words down, in and up have no objects.

They are adverbs, not prepositions.

Small adverbs like these are usually called 'adverb(ial) particles'. They include above, about, across, ahead, along, (a)round, aside, away, back, before, behind, below, by, down, forward, in, home, near, off, on, out, over, past, through, under, up. Many words of this kind can be used as both adverb particles and prepositions, but there are some exceptions: for example back, away (only adverb particles); from, during (only prepositions).

2 phrasal verbs

Adverb particles often join together with verbs to make two-word verbs,

sometimes with completely new meanings (e.g. break down, put off, work out,

give up). These are often called 'phrasal verbs'. For details of their use, see 599.

3 adverb particles with be

Adverb particles are often used, rather like adjectives, as complements of the verb be.

Why are all the lights on? Hello! You're back!

The match will be over by 4.30.

For inverted word order in sentences beginning with an adverb particle (e.g. Out walked Sarah), see 303.

21 adverb position (1): introduction

Different kinds of adverbs go in different positions in a clause. Here are some general rules; for more details, see 22-25.

Note: in the following explanations, the word adverb is generally used both for one-word adverbs like here, often, and for longer adverb phrases like in this house, once every six weeks.

1 verb and object: She speaks English well

We do not usually put adverbs between a verb and its object.

adverb + verb + object

I often get headaches. (NOT I get often headaches.)

verb + object + adverb

She speaks English well. (NOT She speaks well English.)

But an adverb particle like on, off, out can go between a verb and a noun object.

Could you switch off the light?

2 front, mid- and end position

There are three normal positions for adverbs:

a) front position (at the beginning of a clause)

Yesterday morning something very strange happened.

b) mid-position (with the verb - for exact details see 24)

My brother completely forgot my birthday.

I have never understood her.

c) end position (at the end of a clause)

What are you doing tomorrow?

3 what goes where?

Connecting adverbs (which join a clause to what came before) go in front position.

However, not everybody agreed.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. always, often) and adverbs of certainty usually go in mid-position.

My boss often travels to America.

I've definitely decided to change my job.

Adverbs of manner (how), place (where) and time (when) most often go in end position.

She brushed her hair slowly. The children are playing upstairs.

I phoned Alex this morning.

Time adverbs can also go in front position.

Tomorrow I've got a meeting in Cardiff.

For more details about the position of these and other kinds of adverb, see the next four sections.

22 adverb position (2): front position

Adverbs that usually go in front position: connecting adverbs (e.g. then, next); comment adverbs (e.g. fortunately, surprisingly); maybe, perhaps. Adverbs that can go in front position: some adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. sometimes); adverbs of place; adverbs of time.

1 connecting adverbs: then, next, ...

These adverbs join a clause to what came before.

Examples: then, next, besides, anyway, suddenly, however.

I worked until five o'clock. Then I went home.

Next, I want to say something about the future.

Suddenly the door opened.

Some of us want a new system. However, not everybody agrees.

Other positions are possible.

I went home then. Not everybody, however, agrees.

2 comment adverbs: fortunately, surprisingly, ...

Adverbs which give the speaker's opinion of an action most often go in front position.

Fortunately, she has decided to help us. Stupidly, I forgot my keys.

Mid-position is also possible.

3 indefinite frequency: usually, normally, ...

Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can go in front position (but they are more common in mid-position - see 24.)

Sometimes I think I'd like to live somewhere else.

Usually I get up early.

Always, ever, rarely, seldom and never cannot normally go in front position.

I always/never get up early. (NOT Always/Never I get up early.)

However, always and never can begin imperative clauses.

Always look in the mirror before starting to drive.

Never ask her about her marriage.

4 certainty: maybe, perhaps

Maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of a clause.

Maybe I'm right and maybe I'm wrong.

Perhaps her train is late.

Other adverbs of certainty (e.g. probably, definitely, certainly) usually go in mid-position.

5 place: at the end of the garden, here, there

Place adverbs most often go in end position, but front position is possible, especially in literary writing and if the adverb is not the main focus of the message. In this case the verb often comes before the subject (see 303).

At the end of the garden stood a very tall tree.

On the grass sat an enormous frog. Down came the rain.

Here and there often begin clauses. Note the word order in Here/There is, Here comes and There goes.

Here comes your bus. (NOT Here your bus comes.)

There's Alice. There goes our train!

Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.

Here it comes. (NOT Here comes it.)

There she is. (NOT There is she.)

6 time: today, afterwards, in June, soon, every week

Front position is common if the adverb is not the main focus of the message.

Today I'm going to London. In June we went to Cornwall.

Afterwards we sat round and talked. Soon everything will be different.

End-position is also common; soon can go in mid-position.

Time expressions beginning every can go in front position.

Every week she has a new hairstyle.

But other expressions of definite frequency (e.g. daily, weekly) normally go in end position.

For rarely, seldom, never, hardly and scarcely in front position before verb + subject ('inversion'), see 302.7.

23 adverb position (3): end position

Adverbs of manner, place and time usually go in end position, often in that order. Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. occasionally) sometimes go in end position.

1 adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done. Examples: angrily, happily, fast, slowly, well, badly, nicely, noisily, quietly, hard, softly.

He drove off angrily. She read the letter slowly.

You speak English well. John works really hard.

Adverbs in -ly can also go in mid- position if the adverb is not the main focus of the message.

She angrily tore up the letter. I slowly began to feel better again.

2 adverbs of place

Examples: upstairs, around, here, to bed, in London, out of the window.

The children are playing upstairs. Come and sit here.

Don't throw orange peel out of the window.

She's sitting at the end of the garden.

Front position is also possible, especially in literary writing and if the adverb is not the main focus of the message (see 22.5).

At the end of the garden there was a very tall tree.

Adverbs of direction (movement) come before adverbs of position.

The children are running around upstairs.

3 adverbs of time and definite frequency

Examples: today, afterwards, in June, last year, finally, before, eventually, already, soon, still, last, daily, weekly, every year.

I'm going to London today. What did you do afterwards?

She has a new hairstyle every week.

Front position is also common if the adverb is not the main focus of the message.

Today I'm going to London. Every week she has a new hairstyle.

Finally, eventually, already, soon and last can also go in mid-position.

4 manner, place, time

Most often, adverbs of manner, place and time go in that order.

Put the butter in the fridge at once. (NOT ... at once in the fridge.)

Let's go to bed early. (NOT ... early to bed.)

I worked hard yesterday.

She sang beautifully in the town hall last night.

5 adverbs of indefinite frequency: usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally.

These adverbs can go in end position if they are the main focus of the message (but they are more common in mid-position - see 24).

I go there occasionally. We see her quite often.

I get very depressed sometimes.

24 adverb position (4): mid-position

Adverbs that usually go in mid-position: adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. sometimes, certainty (e.g. probably) and completeness (e.g. almost).

Adverbs that can go in mid -position: focusing adverbs (e.g. just), some adverbs of manner (e.g. angrily), comment adverbs (e.g. fortunately).

1 What exactly is mid-position?

Mid-position adverbs usually go before one-part verbs, after auxiliary verbs, and after am/are/is/was/were.

before one-part verbs

I always play tennis on Saturdays. (NOT I play always tennis ... )

It certainly looks like rain. We nearly won the match.

after auxiliary verbs

She has never written to me. (NOT USUALLY She never has written to me.)

He was definitely trying to get into the house.

The train will probably be late. You can almost see the sea from here.

after am/are/is/was/were

She was always kind to me. (NOT USUALLY She always was kind to me.)

It is probably too late now. I am obviously not welcome here.

When there are two or more auxiliaries, the adverb usually goes after the first.

You have definitely been working too hard.

She would never have been promoted if she hadn't changed jobs.

When an auxiliary verb is used alone instead of a complete verb phrase (see 181), a mid-position adverb comes before it.

Are you working? ~ I certainly am.

I don't trust politicians. I never have, and I never will.

For some more advanced points, see paragraphs 8-11 below.

2 indefinite frequency (how often)

Examples: always, ever, usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom, never.

We usually go to Scotland in August.

It sometimes gets very windy here. I have never seen a whale.

You can always come and stay with us if you want to.

Have you ever played American football?

My boss is often bad-tempered. I'm seldom late for work.

We have never been invited to one of their parties.

She must sometimes have wanted to run away.

Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can also go in front or end position (see 22-23).

Sometimes I think I'd like to live somewhere else.

I see her occasionally.

3 adverbs of certainty

Examples: probably, certainly, definitely, clearly, obviously.

He probably thinks you don't like him.

It will certainly rain this evening. There is clearly something wrong.

I definitely feel better today. The train has obviously been delayed.

Maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of a clause (see 22).

Maybe I'm right and maybe I'm wrong.

Perhaps her train is late.

4 adverbs of completeness

Examples: completely, practically, almost, nearly, quite, rather, partly, sort of, kind of, more or less, hardly, scarcely.

I have completely forgotten your name.

Sally can practically read.

It was almost dark.

The house is partly ready.

I kind of hope she wins.

It hardly matters.

Adverbs of completeness usually follow all auxiliary verbs.

I will have completely finished by next June.

(NOT I will completely have finished ... )

Do you think the repair has been properly done?

5 comment adverbs

Adverbs which give the speaker's opinion of an action sometimes go in mid-position.

I stupidly forgot my keys. She has fortunately decided to help us.

6 focusing adverbs

These adverbs 'point to' one part of a clause.

Examples: also (see 46-47), just (see 307), even (see 189), only (see 398), mainly, mostly, either (see 175), or, neither (see 374), nor (see 374).

Your bicycle just needs some oil - that's all.

She neither said 'Thank you' nor looked at me.

He's been everywhere - he's even been to Antarctica.

We're only going for two days.

She's my teacher, but she's also my friend.

The people at the meeting were mainly scientists.

Some of these adverbs can also go in other places in a clause, directly before the words they modify. For details, see the entries on each adverb.

Only you could do a thing like that. I feel really tired.

7 adverbs of manner

These adverbs say how something happens or is done.

Examples: angrily, happily, slowly, suddenly, noisily, quietly, softly.

Adverbs of manner most often go in end position (see 23), but adverbs ending in -ly can often go in mid-position if the adverb is not the main focus of the message.

She angrily tore up the letter. I slowly began to feel better again.

We have suddenly decided to sell the house.

This time next week I'll be happily working in my garden.

Mid-position (after all auxiliary verbs) is especially common with passive verbs.

The driver has been seriously injured.

8 mid-position (details): adverbs with negative verbs

In negative sentences, adverbs generally come before not if they emphasise the negative; otherwise they come after. Compare:

I certainly do not agree. I do not often have headaches.

Both positions are possible with some adverbs, often with a difference of meaning. Compare:

I don't really like her. (mild dislike)

I really don't like her. (strong dislike)

When adverbs come before not, they may also come before the first auxiliary verb; they always come before do.

I probably will not be there. (OR I will probably not be there.)

He probably does not know. (NOT He does probably not know.)

Only one position is possible before a contracted negative.

I probably won't be there.

9 mid-position (details): adverbs with emphatic verbs

When we emphasise auxiliary verbs or am/are/is/was/were, we put most mid-position adverbs before them instead of after. Compare:

- She has certainly made him angry. - I'm really sorry.

She certainly HAS made him angry! I really AM sorry.

- Polite people always say thank-you.

~ Yes, well, I always DO say thank-you.

10 mid-position (details): modal auxiliary verbs

When the first part of the verb phrase is a modal auxiliary (see 353), used to or have to, mid-position adverbs can come before or after the auxiliary.

They sometimes must be bored. (OR They must sometimes be bored.)

She could have easily been killed. (OR She could easily have been killed.)

We always used to go to the seaside in May. (OR We used always to go ... OR We used to always go ... )

11 mid-position (details): American English

In American English (see 51), mid-position adverbs are often put before auxiliary verbs and am/are/is/was/were, even when the verb is not emphasised. Compare:

He has probably arrived by now. (BrE normal)

He probably has arrived by now. (AmE normal, BrE emphatic)

As an extreme example, here are four sentences in a journalistic style taken from an American newspaper article on crime in Britain. The most normal British equivalents are given in brackets.

'Britain long has been known as a land of law and order.'

(BrE Britain has long been known )

'... but it probably will lead to a vote '

(BrE ... but it will probably lead ... )

'... the Labor Party often has criticized police actions.'

(BrE... the Labour Party has often criticised ... )

'... he ultimately was responsible for the treatment ... '

(BrE ... he was ultimately responsible ... )

25 adverb position (5): emphasising adverbs

Examples: very, extremely, terribly, just (meaning 'exactly' or 'a short time'), almost, really, right.

These adverbs go directly before the words that they emphasise or 'point to'.

We all thought she sang very well.

Everybody was extremely annoyed with Julian.

I'm terribly sorry about last night.

I'll see you in the pub just before eight o'clock.

He threw the ball almost over the house.

I'm really tired today.

She walked right past me.

Almost can also go in mid-position (see 24.4).

26 adverbs of manner and adjectives

1 adverbs of manner with verbs

Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done.

Examples: happily, terribly, fast, badly, well.

These adverbs should not be confused with adjectives (happy, terrible etc). We use adverbs, not adjectives, to modify verbs.

 ↓—————↑

verb + adverb

She danced happily into the room. (NOT She danced happy ... )

She sang badly. (NOT She sang bad)

I don't remember him very well. (NOT ... very good.)

But note that adjective forms are sometimes used as adverbs in an informal style, especially in American English (see 27).

She talks funny.

For the use of adjectives after link verbs like look or seem, see 328.

2 other uses

These adverbs can also modify adjectives, past participles, other adverbs and adverbial phrases.

  ↑——————↓

adverb + adjective

It's terribly cold today. (NOT ... terrible cold.)

  ↑——————↓

adverb + past participle

This steak is very badly cooked. (NOT ... bad cooked.)

  ↑——————↓

adverb + adverb

They're playing unusually fast. (NOT ... unusual fast.)

  ↑———————↓

adverb + adverbial phrase

He was madly in love with her. (NOT ... mad in love ... )

For adjectives ending in -ly, see the next section.

For adverbs and adjectives with the same form, see the next section.

For the adjective well, see 617.

For the position of adverbs of manner, see 23.1, 22.7.

For spelling rules, see 557.

27 adverbs or adjectives? confusing cases

1 adjectives ending in -ly

Some words ending in -ly are adjectives, and not normally adverbs. Common examples: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely.

She gave me a friendly smile.

Her singing was lovely.

There are no adverbs friendly/friendlily, lovely/lovelily etc.

She smiled in a friendly way. (NOT She smiled friendly)

He gave a silly laugh. (NOT He laughed silly.)

Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early and leisurely are both adjectives and adverbs.

It's a daily paper. It comes out daily. an early train. I got up early.

2 adjectives and adverbs with the same form; adverbs with two forms

Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form: for example, a fast car goes fast; if you do hard work, you work hard. In other cases, the adverb may have two forms (e.g. late and lately), one like the adjective and the other with -ly.

There is usually a difference of meaning or use. Some examples follow; for more detailed information, check in a good dictionary.

• bloody Some swearwords (see 575), including bloody (BrE), can be used both as adjectives and as adverbs.

You bloody fool. You didn't look where you were going. ~ I bloody did.

• clean The adverb clean means 'completely' before forget (informal) and some expressions of movement.

Sorry I didn't turn up - I clean forgot.

The explosion blew the cooker clean through the wall.

• dead The adverb dead is used in certain expressions to mean 'exactly', 'completely' or 'very'. Examples: dead ahead, dead certain, dead drunk, dead right, dead slow, dead straight, dead sure, dead tired.

Note that deadly is an adjective, meaning 'fatal', 'causing death'. The adverb for this meaning isfatally. Compare:

Cyanide is a deadly poison. She was fatally injured in the crash.

• direct Direct is often used informally as an adverb.

The plane goes direct from London to Houston without stopping.

50% cheaper - order direct from the factory!

• easy Easy is used as an adverb in some informal expressions.

Go easy! (= Not too fast!) Take it easy! (= Relax!)

Easy come, easy go. Easier said than done.

• fair Fair is used as an adverb after a verb in some expressions.

to play fair, to fight fair, to hit something fair and square

For the adverb of degreefairly, see 199.

• fast Fast can mean both 'quick' and 'quickly' (a fast car goes fast). Fast means 'completely' in the expression fast asleep, and it means 'tight', 'impossible to remove' in expressions like hold fast, stick fast, fast colours.

• fine The adverb fine (= well) is used in some informal expressions.

That suits me fine. You're doing fine.

The adverb finely is used to talk about small careful adjustments and similar ideas.

a finely tuned engine, finely chopped onions (= cut up very small)

• flat Flat can be used as an adverb in a musical sense (to sing flat means 'to sing on a note that is too low'). In most other cases, the adverb is flatly.

• free The adverb free (used after a verb) means 'without payment'; freely means 'without limit or restriction'. Compare:

You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.

You can speak freely - I won't tell anyone what you say.

• hard The adverb hard means 'with a lot of force, energetically'.

Hit it hard. I trained really hard for the marathon.

Hardly means 'almost not'.

I've hardly got any clean clothes left.

Compare:

Ann works hard. Her brother hardly works.

Forhardly ... when in clauses of time, see 233.

For hardly any, ever etc, see 43.3.

• high High refers to height;highly (rather formal) expresses an extreme degree (it often means 'very much'). Compare:

- He can jump really high. - It's highly amusing.

Throw it as high as you can. I can highly recommend it.

• just Just is an adverb with several meanings (see 307). There is also an adjective just, meaning 'in accordance with justice or the law'; the adverb is justly.

He was justly punished for his crimes.

• late The adverb late has a similar meaning to the adjective late; lately means 'recently'. Compare:

I hate arriving late. I haven't been to the theatre much lately.

• loud Loud is often used informally as an adverb after a verb.

Don't talk so loud(ly) - you'll wake the whole street.

• low Low is an adjective and adverb (a low bridge, a low voice, bend low).

• most Most is the superlative of much, and is used to form superlative adjectives and adverbs (see 137).

Which part of the concert did you like most?

This is the most extraordinary day of my life.

In a formal style, most can be used to mean 'very' (see 356.7).

You're a most unusual person.

Mostly means 'mainly', 'most often' or 'in most cases'.

My friends are mostly non-smokers.

• pretty The informal adverb of degree pretty is similar to rather (see 199).

Prettily means 'in a pretty way'. Compare:

I'm getting pretty fed up. Isn't your little girl dressed prettily?

• quick In an informal style, quick is often used instead of quickly, especially after verbs of movement.

I'll get back as quick(ly) as I can.

• real In informal American English, real is often used instead of really before adjectives and adverbs.

That was real nice. He cooks real well.

• right Right with adverb phrases means 'just', 'exactly' or 'all the way'.

She arrived right after breakfast.

The snowball hit me right on the nose.

Turn the gas right down.

Right and rightly can both be used to mean 'correctly'. Right is only used after verbs, and is usually informal. Compare:

I rightly assumed that Henry was not coming. You guessed right.

It serves you right. ( ... rightly is not possible.)

• sharp Sharp can be used as an adverb to mean 'punctually'.

Can you be there at six o'clock sharp?

It also has a musical sense (to sing sharp means 'to sing on a note that is too high'), and is used in the expressions turn sharp left and turn sharp right(meaning 'with a big change of direction').

In other senses the adverb is sharply.

She looked at him sharply.

I thought you spoke to her rather sharply.

• short Short is used as an adverb in the expressions stop short (= 'stop suddenly') and cut short (= 'interrupt'). Shortly means 'soon'; it can also describe an impatient way of speaking.

• slow Slow is used as an adverb in road signs (e.g. SLOW - DANGEROUS BEND), and informally after go and some other verbs. Examples: go slow, drive slow.

• sound Sound is used as an adverb in the expression sound asleep. In other cases, soundly is used (e.g. She's sleeping soundly).

• straight The adverb and the adjective are the same. A straight road goes straight from one place to another.

• sure Sure is often used to mean 'certainly' in an informal style, especially in American English.

Can I borrow your tennis racket? ~Sure.

Surely (not) is used to express opinions or surprise (see 573 for details).

Surely house prices will stop rising soon!

Surely you're not going out in that old coat?

• tight After a verb, tight can be used instead of tightly, especially in an informal style. Typical expressions: hold tight, packed tight (compare tightly packed).

• well Well is an adverb corresponding to the adjective good (a good singer sings well). Well is also an adjective meaning 'in good health' (the opposite of ill).

For details, see 617.

• wide The normal adverb is wide; widely suggests distance or separation.

Compare:

The door was wide open. She's travelled widely.

They have widely differing opinions.

Note also the expression wide awake (the opposite of fast asleep).

• wrong Wrong can be used informally instead of wrongly after a verb. Compare:

I wrongly believed that you wanted to help me.

You guessed wrong.

3 comparatives and superlatives

Informal uses of adjective forms as adverbs are especially common with comparatives and superlatives.

Can you drive a bit slower? Let's see who can do it quickest.

4 American English

In informal American English, many other adjective forms can also be used as adverbs of manner.

He looked at me real strange. Think positive.

28 afraid

1 afraid and fear

In an informal style, be afraid is more common than fear.

Don't be afraid. (NOT Don't fear) She's afraid that I might find out.

Are you afraid of the dark? I'm not afraid to say what I think.

2 I'm afraid = 'I'm sorry'

I'm afraid (that) often means 'I'm sorry to tell you (that)'. It is used to introduce apologetic refusals and bad news.

I'm afraid (that) I can't help you.

I'm afraid that there's been an accident.

I'm afraid so/not are used as 'short answers'.

Can you lend me a pound? ~ I'm afraid not.

It's going to rain. ~ Yes, I'm afraid so.

3 not used before a noun

Afraid is one of the adjectives that are not usually used before a noun in 'attributive position' (see 12). Compare:

John's afraid.

John's a frightened man. (NOT ... an afraid man.)

For information about -ing forms and infinitives after afraid, see 299.13.

29 after: adverb

1 shortly after etc.

After can be used in adverb phrases like shortly after, long after, a few days after etc.

We had oysters for supper. Shortly after, I began to feel ill.

In more exact expressions of time, later is more common.

They started the job on the 16th and finished three weeks later.

2 after not used alone

After is not normally used alone as an adverb. Instead, we use other expressions like afterwards (AmE also afterward), then or after that.

I'm going to do my exams, and afterwards I'm going to study medicine.

(NOT ... and after, I'm going ... )

30 after: conjunction

after + clause, + clause

clause + after + clause

1 use and position

The conjunction after joins one clause to another. After and its clause can come either before or after the other clause.

After I left school, I went to America.

I went to America after I left school.

(In both cases the speaker left school first and then went to America. In the second example, the after-clause is given more importance because it comes at the end. Note the comma in the first structure.)

After he did military service, he went to university.

(He did military service first.)

He did military service after he went to university.

(He went to university first.)

2 present with future meaning

We use after with a present tense to talk about the future (see 580).

I'll telephone you after I arrive. (NOT ... after I will arrive.)

3 perfect tenses

In clauses with after, we often use present and past perfect tenses to show that one thing is completed before another starts.

I'll telephone you after I've seen Jake.

After I had finished school, I went to America.

4 after .. .ing

In a formal style, we often use the structure after + -ing.

After completing this form, give it to the secretary.

After having + past participle is also possible when talking about the past.

He wrote his first book after returning / having returned from Mongolia.

31 after all

1 two meanings

After all can mean 'in spite of what was said before' or 'contrary to what was expected'. Position: usually at the end of a clause.

I'm sorry. I know I said I would help you, but I can't after all.

I expected to fail the exam, but I passed after all.

Another meaning is 'we mustn't forget that .. .', introducing an argument or reason which may have been forgotten. Position: at the beginning or end of a clause.

Of course you're tired. After all, you were up all night.

Let's finish the cake. Somebody's got to eat it, after all.

2 not used for 'finally'

After all does not mean 'finally', 'at last', 'in the end'.

After the theatre we had supper and went to a nightclub; then we finally went home. (NOT ... after all we went home.)

32 age

1 use of be

We most often talk about people's ages with be + number

He is thirty. (NOT He has thirty.)

or be + number + years old (more formal: ... of age).

He is thirty years old / of age. (NOT ... thirty years.)

We ask How old are you?, not normally What is your age?

2 be + ... age

Note the structure be + ... age (without a preposition).

When I was your age I was working. (NOT When I was at your age ... )

The two boys are the same age. She's the same age as me.

3 prepositions

In other structures, at is common before age.

He could read at the age of three. (NOT ... in the age ... )

At your age I already had a job.

33 ago

1 word order: six weeks ago

Ago follows an expression of time.

I met her six weeks ago. (NOT ... ago six weeks.) a long time ago

2 tenses

An expression with ago refers to a finished time, and is normally used with a past tense, not a present perfect (see 455.5).

She phoned a few minutes ago. (NOT She has phoned ... )

Where's Mike? ~ He was working outside ten minutes ago.

3 the difference between ago and for

Ago says how long before the present something happened; for (with a past tense) says how long it lasted. Compare:

He died three years ago. (= three years before now)

(NOT He died for three years. OR ... for three years ago.)

He was ill for three years before he died. (= His illness lasted three years.)

4 ago and before with time expressions: counting back

We use ago with a past tense and a time expression to 'count back' from the present; to say how long before now something happened.

We can use before in the same way (with a past perfect tense) to count back from a past moment (see also 96). Compare:

I met that woman in Scotland three years ago.

(NOT ... three years before / before three years.)

When we got talking, I found out that I had been at school with her husband ten years before. (NOT ... ten years ago.)

For other uses of before, see 97-98.

34 alike

The adjective alike means 'like each other'. Compare:

The two boys are alike in looks, but not in personality.

He's like his brother. (NOT He's alike his brother.)

Alike is not often used before a noun (see 12). Compare:

His two daughters are very much alike.

He's got two very similar-looking daughters. (NOT ... alike daughters.)

35 all (1): introduction

1 three or more items

All refers to three or more items. Compare:

I'll take all three shirts, please.

I'll take both shirts. (NOT ... all two shirts.)

2 all (of) with nouns and pronouns

All modifies nouns or pronouns.

All (of) the people were singing.

Give my love to them all.

I haven't read all of it.

See 36 for details of word order, and the use of all of

3 with the subject or the verb

When all modifies the subject, it can go either with the subject or with the verb.

All the people were singing. The people were all singing.

For more examples, see 36-37.

4 all without a noun

All can sometimes be used without a noun to mean 'everything' but only in certain structures (see 38).

All that matters is to be happy. That's all.

5 all with adjectives, adverbs etc

All can be used to emphasise some adjectives, prepositions and adverbs.

You're all wet. She walked all round the town.

I was all alone. Tell me all about your holiday.

It's all because of you. I looked all round, but I couldn't see anything.

All, both and half follow similar grammar rules. For both, see 110; for half, see 231.

36 all (2): all (of) with nouns and pronouns

1 all and all of

All (of) can modify nouns and pronouns.

Before a noun with a determiner (for example the, my, this), all and all of are both possible. All is more common than all of

She's eaten all (of) the cake. All (of) my friends like riding.

Before a noun with no determiner, we do not normally use of

All children can be difficult. (NOT All of children ... )

2 all of + personal pronoun

With personal pronouns, we use all of + us/you/them.

All of us/you/them can be a subject or object.

All of us can come tomorrow. (NOT All we...)

She's invited all of you. Mary sent all of them her love.

3 pronoun + all

We can put all after pronouns used as objects.

She's invited you all. Mary sent her love to them all.

I've made us all something to eat.

This does not happen with complement pronouns (after be) or in short answers.

I think that's all of them. (NOT I think that's them all.)

Who did she invite? ~ All of us. (NOT Us all.)

All can follow a subject pronoun (e.g. They all went home), but in this case it belongs grammatically with the verb (see 37) and may be separated from the pronoun (e.g. They have all gone home).

For the American plural pronoun you all, see 429.8.

4 types of noun

All is used mostly before uncountable and plural nouns.

all the water, all my friends

However, all can be used before some singular countable nouns referring to things that can naturally be divided into parts.

all that week, all my family, all the way

We can also use all (of) before proper nouns (e.g. the names of places or writers).

All (of) London knew about her affairs. I've read all (of) Shakespeare.

With other singular countable nouns, it is more natural to use whole (e.g. the whole story). For details, see 40.

5 leaving out the

After all, we sometimes leave out the before numbers.

all (the) three brothers

And we usually leave out the in all day, all night, all week, all year, all winter and all summer.

She stayed here all day. (NOT ... all the day).

6 not all ...

It is not very common to use all + noun as the subject of a negative verb (e.g. All Americans don't like hamburgers). We more often use not all + noun + affirmative verb.

Not all Americans like hamburgers.

Note the difference between not all and no. Compare:

Not all birds can fly.

No birds can play chess.

37 all (3): with the verb

When all refers to the subject of a clause, it can go with the verb, in 'midposition' (for details of word order, see 24.)

We can all swim. Those apples were all bad.

The guests have all arrived. My family all work in education.

Note that these meanings can also be expressed by using all (of) with the subject (see 36).

All of us can swim. All (of) the guests have arrived.

38 all (4): all, everybody/everyone and everything

1 all and everybody/everyone

We do not normally use all without a noun to mean 'everybody'. Compare:

All the people stood up.

Everybody/Everyone stood up. (NOT All stood up.)

2 all and everything

All can mean' everything', but usually only in the structure all + relative clause (all that ... ). Compare:

- All (that) I have is yours. (NOT All what I have ... )

Everything is yours. (NOT All is yours.)

- She lost all (that) she owned.

She lost everything. (NOT She lost all.)

This structure often has a rather negative meaning, expressing ideas like 'nothing more' or 'the only thing(s)'.

This is all I've got. All I want is a place to sit down.

All that happened was that he went to sleep.

Note also That's all (= It's finished; There's no more).

3 older English

In older English, all could be used alone to mean 'everybody' or 'everything' (e.g.Tell me all; All is lost; All are dead). This only happens regularly in modern English in dramatic contexts like newspaper headlines (e.g. SPY TELLS ALL).

39 all and every

All and every can both be used to talk about people or things in general, or about all the members of a group. There is little difference of meaning; every often suggests 'without exception'. The two words are used in different structures.

1 every with singular nouns; all with plurals

Every is used with a singular noun. To give the same meaning, all is used with a plural noun. Compare:

- Every child needs love. (NOT All child needs love.)

All children need love.

- Every light was out.

All (of) the lights were out.

2 every not used with determiners

We can use all (of), but not normally every, with certain determiners (articles, possessives or demonstratives). Compare:

- All (of) the plates were broken.

Every plate was broken. (NOT Every the plate / The every plate ... )

- I've written to all (of) my friends.

I've written to every friend I have. (NOT ... every my friend / my every friend.)

3 all with uncountables

We can use all, but not every, with uncountable nouns.

I like all music. (NOT ... every music.)

4 all day and every day etc

Note the difference between all day/week etc and every day/week etc.

She was here all day. (= from morning to night)

She was here every day. (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, ... )

For the difference between every and each, see 170.

40 all and whole

1 pronunciation

all /ɔ:l/ whole /həʊl/

2 word order

All (of) and whole can both be used with singular nouns to mean 'complete', 'every part of'. The word order is different.

all (of) + determiner + noun

determiner + whole + noun

- Julie spent all (of) the summer at home.   - all (of) my life

  Julie spent the whole summer at home.   my whole life

3 indefinite reference

All is not generally used before indefinite articles.

She's eaten a whole loaf (NOT ... all a loaf)

4 uncountable nouns

With most uncountable nouns we prefer all (of).

I've drunk all (of) the milk. (NOT ... the whole milk.)

5 the whole of

Instead of whole we can generally use the whole of

Julie spent the whole of the summer at home.

the whole of my life

Before proper nouns (names) and pronouns we always use the whole of, not whole. All (of) is also possible.

The whole of / All of Venice was under water. (NOT Whole Venice ... )

I've just read the whole of / all of 'War and Peace'.

I've read the whole of / all of it.

6 plural nouns

With plural nouns, all and whole have different meanings. All is like every; whole means 'complete', 'entire'. Compare:

All Indian tribes suffered from white settlement in America. (= Every Indian tribe suffered ... )

Whole Indian tribes were killed off. (= Complete tribes were killed off; nobody was left alive in these tribes.)

41 all right and alright

The standard spelling is all right. Alright is common, but some people consider it incorrect.

42 allow, permit and let

1 allow and permit

These words have similar meanings and uses. Permit is more formal. Both words can be followed by object + infinitive.

We do not allow/permit people to smoke in the kitchen.

When there is no personal object, an -ing form is used.

We do not allow/permit smoking in the kitchen.

Passive structures are common; personal subjects and gerund (-ing form) subjects are both possible.

People are not allowed/permitted to smoke in the kitchen.

Smoking is not allowed/permitted in the kitchen.

The passive structure with it is only possible with permit.

It is not permitted to smoke in the kitchen. (BUT NOT It is not allowed to smoke...)

Allow, but not permit, can be used with adverb particles.

She wouldn't allow me in. Mary isn't allowed out at night.

2 let

Let is the least formal of these three words, and is followed by object + infinitive without to. Compare:

Please allow me to buy you a drink. (polite and formal)

Let me buy you a drink. (friendly and informal)

Let is not usually used in the passive.

I wasn't allowed to pay for the drinks. (NOT I wasn't let ... )

Let can be used with adverb particles; passives are possible in this case.

She wouldn't let me in. I've been let down.

For more about let, see 322-323.

43 almost and nearly; practically

1 progress, measurement and counting

Almost and nearly can both express ideas connected with progress, measurement or counting. Nearly is less common in American English.

I've almost/nearly finished.

There were almost/nearly a thousand people there.

Sometimes almost is a little 'nearer' than nearly. Compare:

It's nearly ten o'clock. (= perhaps 9.45)

It's almost ten o'clock. (= perhaps 9.57)

Very and pretty can be used with nearly but not almost.

I've very/pretty nearly finished. (Nor ... very almost ... )

2 other meanings

We can use almost to mean 'similar to, but not exactly the same', and to make statements less definite. Nearly is not used like this.

Jake is almost like a father to me.

Our cat understands everything - he's almost human. (NOT ... he's nearly human.)

My aunt's got a strange accent. She almost sounds foreign. (NOT ... She nearly sounds foreign.)

I almost wish I'd stayed at home. (NOT I nearly wish ... )

3 never, nobody, nothing etc

We do not usually use nearly before negative pronouns or adverbs like never, nobody, nothing. Instead, we use almost, or we use hardly with ever, anybody, anything etc.

She's almost never / hardly ever at home. (NOT ... nearly never ... )

Almost nobody / hardly anybody was there.

4 everybody, everything, anybody, anything etc

We also prefer almost before everybody/ -one/ -thing/ -where, and almost is much more common than nearly before anybody/ -one/ -thing/ -where.

She likes almost everybody. Almost anybody can do this job.

He's been almost everywhere. He eats almost anything.

5 practically

Practically can be used in the same way as almost.

I've practically finished. Jake is practically like a father to me.

She's practically never at home.

44 alone, lonely, lonesome and lone

Alone means 'without others around'. Lonely (and informal AmE lonesome) means 'alone and unhappy because of it'. Compare:

I like to be alone for short periods.

But after a few days I start getting lonely/lonesome.

Alone can be emphasised by all.

After her husband died, she was all alone.

Alone is not used before a noun (see 12.3). Lone and solitary can be used instead; lone is rather literary.

The only green thing was a lone/solitary pine tree.

45 along

The preposition along is used with nouns like road, river, corridor, line: words that refer to things with a long thin shape.

I saw her running along the road.

His office is along the corridor.

To talk about periods or activities, we prefer through.

through the centuries (NOT along the centuries)

all through the journey (NOT all along the jottmey)

right through the meal

Note the special use of along as an adverb particle in expressions like Come along (= Come with me) or walking along (= walking on one's way).

46 also, as well and too

1 position

Also, as well and too have similar meanings, but they do not go in the same position in clauses. Also usually goes with the verb, in mid-position (see 24); as well and too usually go at the end of a clause. As well is less common in AmE.

She not only sings; she also plays the piano.

She not only sings; she plays the piano as well.

She not only sings; she plays the piano too.

As well and too do not go at the beginning of a clause. Also can go at the beginning of a clause to give more importance to a new piece of information.

It's a nice house, but it's very small. Also, it needs a lot of repairs.

2 reference

These words can refer to different parts of a clause, depending on the meaning. Consider the sentence We work on Saturdays as well. This can mean three different things:

a (Other people work on Saturdays, and) we work on Saturdays as well.

b (We do other things on Saturdays, and) we work on Saturdays as well.

c (We work on other days, and) we work on Saturdays as well.

When we speak, we show the exact meaning by stressing the word or expression that also / as well / too refers to.

3 imperatives and short answers

As well and too are used in imperatives and short answers, but not usually also.

Give me some bread as well, please. (More natural than Also give me ... )

She's nice. ~ Her sister is as well. (More natural than Her sister is also.)

I've got a headache. ~ I have too. (More natural than I also have.)

In very informal speech, we often use Me too as a short answer.

I'm going home. ~ Me too.

More formal equivalents are So am I (see 541) or I am too, BUT NOT I also.

4 too in a formal style

In a formal or literary style, too can be placed directly after the subject.

I, too, have experienced despair.

For also, as well, too and either in negative clauses, see 47.

For also and even, see 189.3.

For as well as, see 78.

47 also, as well, too and either in negative clauses

1 negative + negative: either

After mentioning a negative idea or fact, we can add another negative point by using not ... either.

Peter isn't here today. John isn't here either. (NOT John isn't here neither.)

Also, as well and too are not normally used with not in this way.

You can't have an apple, and you can't have an orange either.

(NOT ... and you can't have an orange also / as well / too.)

2 affirmative + negative: also / as well / too

After mentioning an affirmative (non-negative) fact or idea, we can add a negative point by using not ... also, not ... as well or not ... too.

You can have an apple, but you can't have an orange too.

He drinks too much, but at least he doesn't smoke as well.

48 alternate(ly) and alternative(ly)

Alternate(ly) means 'every second', 'first one and then the other', 'in turns'.

We spend alternate weekends at our country cottage.

I'm alternately happy and depressed.

Alternative(ly) is similar to 'different', 'instead', 'on the other hand'.

Janet's not free on the 27th. We'll have to find an alternative date.

You could go by air, or alternatively you could drive there.

49 although, though, but and however: contrast

1 although and though: conjunctions

Both these words can be used as conjunctions, with the same meaning. In informal speech, though is more common. They introduce an idea ('A') with which the main clause ('B') is in contrast. When we say '(Al)though A, B', there is something unexpected or surprising about 'B'.

(Al)though (A) I don't like him, (B) I agree that he's a good manager.

(B) I'd quite like to go out, (al)though (A) it is a bit late.

2 but and however

We can give the same meaning by putting but or however with the contrasting, 'unexpected' clause ('B').

(A) I don't like him, but (B) I agree that he's a good manager.

(A) I don't like him. However, (B) I agree that he's a good manager.

(A) It is a bit late, but (B) I'd quite like to go out.

(A) It is a bit late; however, (B) I'd quite like to go out.

3 but and however: the difference

But is a conjunction: it joins two clauses, and comes at the beginning of the second. However is an adverb: it does not connect its sentence grammatically to the one before. This is why it comes after a full stop or a semi-colon in the above examples.

However can go in various positions. It is normally separated from its sentence by one or two commas, depending on its position.

However, the police did not believe him.

The police, however, did not believe him.

The police did not believe him, however.

4 though used as an adverb

We can use though as an adverb (often at the end of a sentence), to mean 'however'.

Nice day. ~ Yes. Bit cold, though.

The strongest argument, though, is economic and not political.

For as though, see 74.

For sentences like Cold though it was, I went out, see 71.

50 altogether and all together

Altogether means 'completely' or 'considering everything'.

My new house isn't altogether finished.

Altogether, she decided, marriage was a bit of a mistake.

Altogether can also be used to give totals.

That's £4.38 altogether.

All together usually means 'everybody/everything together'.

Come on, everybody sing. All together now ...

They all went to the cinema together.

51 American and British English

These two varieties of English are very similar. There are a few differences of grammar and spelling, and rather more differences of vocabulary and idiom. Modern British English is heavily influenced by American English, so some contrasts are disappearing. Pronunciation is sometimes very different, but most American and British speakers can understand each other easily.

1 grammar

Here are examples of the most important differences. In many cases, two different forms are possible in one variety of English, while only one of the forms is possible or normal in the other variety.

American English
British English

He just went home.
(OR He's just gone home.)
He's just gone home. (See 307.2)

I've never really gotten to know her.
I've never really got to know her. (See 223.7.)

I (can) see a car coming.
I can see a car coming. (See 125.1.)

Her feet were sore because her shoes fit/fitted badly.
Her feet were sore because her shoes fitted badly. (See 304.3.)

It's important that he be told.
It's important that he should be told. (See 567.)

Will you buy it?~ I may.
... I may (do). (See 161.)

The committee meets tomorrow.
The committee meet/meets tomorrow. (See 526.1.)

(on the phone) Hello, is this Susan?
Hello, is that Susan? (See 589.5.)

It looks like it's going to rain.
It looks as if/like it's going to rain. (See 74.3.)

He looked at me real strange. (very informal) OR He looked at me really strangely.
He looked at me really strangely. (See 27.)

He probably has arrived by now.
OR He has probably arrived ...
He has probably arrived by now.

Besides get and fit, some other irregular verbs have different forms in British and American English. For details, see 304.3.

For the Southern US second person plural pronoun you all, see 429.8.

2 vocabulary

There are very many differences. Sometimes the same word has different meanings (BrE mad = crazy; AmE mad = angry). And very often, different words are used for the same idea (BrE lorry = AmE truck). Here are a few examples, with very brief information about the words and their meanings. (A larger list with more complete information, can be found in The British/American Dictionary by Norman Moss, published by Hutchinson. This is unfortunately now out of print, but may be obtainable in libraries. A more recently published guide to British-American differences is: Mighty Fine Words and Smashing Expressions - Making Sense of Transatlantic English, edited by Orin Hargrave, Oxford University Press)

American English | British English
airplane | aeroplane
anyplace, anywhere | anywhere
apartment | flat, apartment
area code | dialling code (phone)
attorney, lawyer | barrister, solicitor, lawyer
busy | engaged (phone)
call collect | reverse the charges (phone)
can | tin, can
candy | sweets
check/bill | bill (in a restaurant)
coin-purse | purse
cookie, cracker | biscuit
corn | sweet corn, maize
crib | cot
crazy | mad
crosswalk | pedestrian/zebra crossing
cuffs | turn-ups (on trousers)
diaper | nappy
doctor's office | doctor's surgery
dumb, stupid | stupid
elevator | lift
eraser | rubber, eraser
fall, autumn | autumn
faucet, tap | tap (indoors)
first floor, second floor etc | ground floor, first floor etc
flashlight | torch
flat (tire) | flat tyre, puncture
french fries | chips
garbage, trash | rubbish
garbage can, trashcan | dustbin, rubbish bin
gas(oline) | petrol
gear shift | gear lever (on a car)
highway, freeway | main road, motorway
hood | bonnet (on a car)
intersection | crossroads
mad | angry
mean | nasty
movie, film | film
one-way (ticket) | single (ticket)
pants, trousers | trousers
parking lot | car park
pavement | road surface
pitcher | jug
pocketbook, purse, handbag | handbag
(potato) chips | crisps
railroad | railway
raise | rise (in salary)
rest room, bathroom | (public) toilet
resume | CV
round trip | return (journey/ticket)
schedule, timetable | timetable
sidewalk | pavement
sneakers | trainers (= sports shoes)
spigot, faucet | tap (outdoors)
stand in line | queue
stingy | mean (opposite of 'generous!
store, shop | shop
subway | underground
truck | van, lorry
trunk | boot (of a car)
two weeks | fortnight, two weeks
vacation | holiday(s)
windshield | windscreen (on a car)
zee | zed (the name of the letter 'z')
zipper | zip
check something (out) | check something
different from/than | different from/to (see 155)
do something over/again | do something again
in a course | on a course
live on X street | live in X street
look around the church | look (a)round the church (see 60)
meet somebody (by chance)/ | meet somebody
meet with somebody (planned) | meet somebody
Monday through/to Friday | Monday to Friday
on a team | in a team
on the weekend | at the weekend
ten after/past four (time) | ten past four
ten to/of/before/till four | ten to four

3 spelling

A number of words end in -or in American English and -our in British English (e.g. color/colour). Some words end in -er in American English and -re in British English (e.g. center/centre). Many verbs which end in -ize in American English (e.g. realize) can be spelt in British English with -ize or -ise (see 558).

Some of the commonest words with different forms are:

American English | British English
aluminum | aluminium
analyze | analyse
catalog(ue) | catalogue
center | centre
check | cheque (paid by a bank)
color | colour
defense | defence
enroll | enrol
fulfill | fulfil
honor | honour
jewelry | jewellery
labor | labour
liter | litre
meter (measure) | metre
neighbor | neighbour
organize | organise/ organize
pajamas | pyjamas
paralyze | paralyse
practice, practise | practise (verb)
program | programme
realize | realise /realize
skillful | skilful
theater I theatre | theatre
tire | tyre (on a wheel)
trave(l)ler | traveller (see 562)
whiskey | (Scotch) whisky, (Irish) whiskey

4 pronunciation

There are, of course, many different regional accents in both Britain and America. The most important general differences between American and British speech are as follows:

a) Certain vowels are nasal (pronounced through the nose and mouth at the same time) in some varieties of American English, but not in most British accents.

b) British English has one more vowel than American English. This is the rounded short o (/ɒ/) used in words like cot, dog, got, gone, off, stop, lost. In American English these words are pronounced either with /ɑ:/, like the first vowel in father, or with /ɔ:/, like the vowel in caught. (This vowel is also pronounced rather differently in British and American English.)

c) Some words written with a + consonant (e.g. fast, after) have different pronunciations: with /ɑ:/ in standard southern British English, and with /æ/ in American and some other varieties of English.

d) The vowel in home, go, open is pronounced /əʊ/ in standard southern British English, and /oʊ/ in American English. The two vowels sound very different.

e) In standard southern British English, r is only pronounced before a vowel sound. In most kinds of American English, (and most other British varieties) r is pronounced in all positions where it is written in a word, and it changes the quality of a vowel that comes before it. So words like car, turn, offer sound very different in British and American speech.

f) In many varieties of American English, t and d both have a very light voiced pronunciation (/d/) between vowels - so writer and rider, for example, can sound the same. In British English they are quite different: /'raɪtə(r)/ I and /'raɪdə(r)/.

g) Some words which are pronounced with /u:/ in most varieties of American English have /ju:/ in British English. These are words in which th, d, t or n (and sometimes s or l) are followed by u or ew in writing.

enthusiastic | AmE /ɪnθuːzi'æstɪk/ | BrE /ɪnθjuːzi'æstɪk/
duty | AmE /'du:ti/ | BrE /,dju:ti/
tune | AmE /tu:n/ | BrE /tju:n/
new | AmE /nu:/ | BrE /nju:/
illuminate | AmE /ɪ'lu:mɪneɪt/ | BrE /ɪ'lju:mɪneɪt/

h) Words ending in unstressed -ile (e.g. fertile, reptile, missile, senile) are pronounced with /aɪl/ in British English; some are pronounced with /l/ in American English.

fertile AmE /'fɜːrtl/ (rhyming with turtle) BrE /'fɜːtaɪl/ (rhyming withher tile)

i) Some long words ending in -ary, -ery or -ory are pronounced differently, with one more syllable in American English.

secretary AmE /'sekrəteri/ BrE /'sekrətri/

j) Borough and thorough are pronounced differently.

AmE /'bʌroʊ 'θʌroʊ/

BrE /'bʌrə 'θʌrə/

k) Words borrowed from French are often stressed differently, especially if their pronunciation ends with a vowel sound. The final vowel is usually stressed in American English but not in British English.

paté AmE /pæt'eɪ/ BrE /'pæteɪ/

ballet AmE /bæ'leɪ/ BrE /'bæleɪ/

52 and

1 use

When we join two or more grammatically similar expressions, we usually put and before the last.

bread and cheese

We drank, talked and danced.

I wrote the letters, Peter addressed them, George bought the stamps and Alice posted them.

And is sometimes left out in a very literary or poetic style, but this is unusual.

My dreams are full of darkness, despair, death.

2 fixed expressions

Some common expressions with and have a fixed order which cannot be changed. The shortest expression often comes first.

bread and butter (NOT butter and bread)

hands and knees (NOT knees and hands)

young and pretty, thunder and lightning

black and white, cup and saucer, knife and fork

Note: and is usually pronounced /ənd/, not /ænd/ (see 616).

For and with adjectives, see 16.

For rules about the use of commas, see 476.

For ellipsis after and, in expressions like a knife and (a) fork, the bread and (the) butter, see 178.

For singular and plural verbs after subjects with and, see 527.5.

For and after try, wait, go, come etc, see 53.

For both ... and, see 111.

53 and after try, wait, go etc

1 try / be sure / wait and ...

We often use and ... instead of to after try / be sure. This is informal.

Try and eat something - you'll feel better if you do.

I'll try and phone you tomorrow morning.

Be sure and ask Uncle foe about his garden.

Note also the common expression Wait and see.

What's for lunch? ~ Wait and see.

We only use this structure with the simple base forms try / be sure / wait. It is not possible, for example, with tries, trying, was sure or waited. Compare:

Try and eat something.

I tried to eat something. (NOT I tried and ate something.)

We waited to see what would happen. (NOT We waited and saw ... )

2 come/go/etc and ...

Come and ... , go and , run and ... , hurry up and ... , stay and ... are often used informally.

Come and have a drink.

Stay and have dinner. Hurry up and open the door.

With these verbs, the structure is not only used with the base form.

He often comes and spends the evening with us.

She stayed and played with the children. She thought of going and getting him.

3 American English

In informal American English, and is sometimes dropped after the base forms go and come.

Let's go see if Anne's home.

Go jump in the river. Come sit on my lap.

54 another and other(s)

1 spelling of another

Another is one word.

He's bought another car. (NOT ... an other car.)

2 'additional, extra'

Another can mean 'an additional, extra'. It is used with singular countable nouns.

Could I have another piece of bread?

Another can be used without a noun, or with one, if the meaning is clear from what has come before.

Those cakes are wonderful. Could I have another (one)?

With uncountable and plural nouns, we normally use more, not other, with this meaning.

Would you like some more meat? (NOT ... other meat?)

Would you like some more peas? (NOT ... other peas?)

However, we can use another before a plural noun in expressions with few or a number.

I'm staying for another few weeks. We need another three chairs.

For other cases where a(n) is followed by a plural, see 532.6.

3 'alternative'

(An)other can also mean «an) alternative', 'besides/instead of this/these'.

I think we should paint it another colour.

Have you got any other cakes, or are these the only ones?

Other people often means 'people besides oneself'.

Why don't you think more about other people?

4 other and others

When other is used with a noun it has no plural form.

Where are the other photos? (NOT ... the others photos?)

But used alone, without a noun, it can have a plural form.

I've got one lot of photos. Where are the others?

These are too small. Have you got any others?

Normally, other(s) is only used alone if it refers to a noun that has been mentioned before. An exception is the common plural use of (the) others to mean (the) other people.

He never thinks of others. Jake's arrived - I must tell the others.

BUT NOT On the phone, one cannot see the other OR He never listens to another.

5 not used like an adjective

Other is a determiner or pronoun; it is not used exactly like an adjective. So it cannot normally have an adverb before it, or be used after a link verb.

I'd prefer a completely different colour. (NOT ... a completely other colour.)

You look different with a beard. (NOT You look other ... )

For one another, see 171.

55 any

1 meaning

Any is a determiner (see 154). It generally suggests an indefinite amount or number, and is used when it is not important to say how much/many we are thinking of. Because of its 'open', non-specific meaning, any is often used in questions and negative clauses, and in other cases where there is an idea of doubt or negation.

Have you got any biscuits?

We didn't have any problems going through customs.

You never give me any help.

The noise of the party stopped me getting any sleep.

I suddenly realised I'd come out without any money.Any is common after if

If you find any blackberries, keep some for me.

Sometimes any means 'if there is/are any' or 'whatever there is/are'.

Any fog will clear by noon. (= If there is any fog, it will clear by noon.)

Perhaps you could correct any mistakes I've made.

Any can be used to emphasise the idea of open choice: 'it doesn't matter who/what/which' .

You can borrow any book you like.

For details of this use, see paragraph 5 below.

2 any and some

Any often contrasts with some, which is most common in affirmative clauses. Compare:

I need some razor blades. Have you got any razor blades?

Sorry, I haven't got any razor blades.

For details of the difference, see 547.

3 any and not any

Any alone does not have a negative meaning. It is only negative when used with not.

She's unhappy because she hasn't got any friends. (NOT ... because she has got any friends)

No (see 376) means the same as not any, but is more emphatic.

She's got no friends.

Not any cannot begin a sentence; no is used instead.

No cigarette is harmless. (NOT Not any cigarette ... )

No tourists came to the town that year.

We do not usually use not any with singular countable nouns.

She hasn't got a job. (NOT She hasn't got any job.)

4 nouns with and without any

With an uncountable or plural noun, any usually suggests the idea of an indefinite amount or indefinite number. Compare:

- Is there any water in that can?

Is there water on the moon? (The interest is in the existence of water, not its amount.)

- Dad hasn't got any hair. (He has lost the amount he had.)

Birds have feathers, not hair. (No idea of amount.)

- None of her children have got any sense. (Not even a small amount.)

Ann looks like her mother, but she hasn't got blue eyes. (NOT ... she hasn't got

any blue eyes - people have a definite number of eyes: two.)

5 any = 'it doesn't matter who/which/what'

Any can be used to emphasise the idea of free choice, with the meaning of 'it doesn't matter who/which/what'. With this meaning, any is common in affirmative clauses as well as questions and negatives, and is often used with singular countable nouns as well as uncountables and plurals. In speech, it is stressed.

Ask any doctor - they'll all tell you that alcohol is a poison.

She goes out with any boy who asks her.

When shall I come?~Any time.

We can use just any if necessary to make the meaning clear.

I don't do just any work - I choose jobs that interest me.

(I don't do any work ... could be misunderstood.)

Note that we use either (see 174), not any, to talk about a choice between two alternatives.

I can write with either hand. (NOT ... any hand.)

6 at all

At all (see 83) is often used to emphasise the meaning of (not) any.

I'll do any job at all - even road-sweeping.

She doesn't speak any English at all.

7 any and any of

Before a determiner (definite article, demonstrative or possessive word) or a pronoun, we use any of (see 154.4) Compare:

- I didn't go to any lectures last term. (NOT ... any of lectures ... )

I wasn't interested in any of the lectures. (NOT ... any the lectures.)

- Do any books here belong to you?

Do any of these books belong to you?

- I don't think any staff want to work tomorrow.

I don't think any of us want to work tomorrow.

Note that when any of is followed by a plural subject, the verb can be singular or plural. A singular verb is more common in a formal style.

If any of your friends is/are interested, let me know.

8 without a noun

A noun can be dropped after any, if the meaning is clear.

Did you get the oil?~ No, there wasn't any left.

Instead of not any without a noun, none (see 376) can be used. This is often more emphatic.

There was none left.

We don't use any or not any alone as answers.

What day shall I come?~Any day. (NOT Any.)

How much money have you got?~None. (NOT Not any).

9 compounds

Many of the rules given above also apply to the compounds anybody, anyone, anything and anywhere. For more information about these, see 548.

For the use of any and no as adverbs, see 57.

For any ... but, see 116.

For any and every, see 56.

56 any and every

Any and every can both be used to talk in general about all the members of a class or group.

Any/Every child can learn to swim.

The meaning is not quite the same. Any looks at things one at a time: it means 'whichever one you choose', 'this or that or the other'. Every looks at things together: its meaning is closer to 'all', 'this and that and the other'. Compare:

Which newspaper would you like? ~ It doesn't matter. Any one. (= one or

another or another) (NOT ... Every one.)

On the stand there were newspapers and magazines of every kind. (= one

and another and another) (NOT ... magazines of any kind.)

For more information about any. see 55,

For every, see 193,

57 any and no: adverbs

1 any and no with comparatives

Any can modify comparatives. This happens mostly in questions and negative sentences, and after if (see also 381).

Can you go any faster?

You don't look any older than your daughter. (= You don't look at all older ... )

If I were any younger, I'd fall in love with you.

No can also be used in this way (but not some).

I'm afraid the weather's no better than yesterday.

2 any/no different

We can also use any and no with different.

This school isn't any different from the last one.

Is John any better? ~ No different. Still very ill.

3 any/no good; any/no use

Note the expressions any good/use and no good/use.

Was the film any good? This watch is no use. It keeps stopping.

58 appear

1 link verb: 'seem'

Appear can be a link verb (see 328), used to say how things look or seem. It is used in similar ways to seem (see 507 for details), but is less frequent, especially in an informal style.

With this meaning, appear is followed by adjectives, not adverbs. We can use appear or appear to be.

He appears (to be) very angry today. (NOT He appears very angrily today.)

Before nouns we generally use appear to be.

It appears to be some kind of bomb.

The boys on the bus appeared to be students.

Structures with preparatory there (see 587) or it (see 446) are possible.

There appears to be a problem with the oil pressure.

It appears that we may be mistaken.

2 appear and seem: differences

Seem can be used to talk both about objective facts and about subjective impressions and feelings (see 507 for examples). Appear is mostly used to talk about objective facts. Compare:

The baby seems/appears (to be) hungry.

She doesn't want to go on studying. It seems a pity. (NOT It appears a pity.)

Seem is often used with like. This is not normal with appear.

It seemed like a good idea. (More natural than It appeared like a good idea.)

Seem can be used in a special structure with can't (see 507.4). This is not possible with appear.

I can't seem to make him understand. (BUT NOT I can't appear to make him understand. )

3 'come into sight'

Appear can also mean 'come into sight' or 'arrive'. In this case it can be modified by an adverb.

She suddenly appeared in the doorway.

For structures with look, see 331.

59 arise and rise

Arise means 'begin', 'appear', 'occur', 'come to one's notice'. It is used mostly with abstract nouns as subjects.

A discussion arose about the best way to pay.

I'm afraid a difficulty has arisen.

Rise usually means 'get higher', 'come/go up'.

Prices keep rising. What time does the sun rise?

My hopes are rising.

Note that we usually say that people get up in the morning. Rise is only used with this meaning in a very formal style.

Arise and rise are irregular verbs.

(a)rise - (a)rose - (a)risen

For the difference between rise and raise, see 304.2.

60 (a)round and about

1 circular movement etc: (a)round

We use both round and around (AmE usually around) for movement or position in a circle or a curve.

She walked (a)round the car and looked at the wheels.

I'd like to travel (a)round the world.

Where do you live? ~ Just (a)round the corner.

2 touring; distribution: round

We also use round or around (AmE usually around) to talk about going to all (or most) parts of a place, or giving things to everybody in a group.

We walked (a)round the old part of the town.

Can I look (a)round? Could you pass the cups (a)round, please?

3 indefinite movement and position

We use around or about (AmE usually around) to refer to movements or positions that are not very clear or definite: 'here and there', 'in lots of places', 'in different parts of', 'somewhere in' and similar ideas.

The children were running around/about everywhere.

Stop standing around/about and do some work.

Where's John? ~ Somewhere around/about.

I like doing odd jobs around/about the house.

We also use these words in some common expressions to talk about time-wasting or silly activity.

Stop fooling around/about. We're late.

4 approximately: about

About (less often around) can mean 'approximately', 'not exactly'.

There were about/around fifty people there.

What time shall I come?~ About/Around eight.

For other uses of these words, see a good dictionary.

61 articles (1): introduction

1 What are articles?

Articles are small words that are often used at the beginning of noun phrases. There are two: the (the 'definite article') and a/an (the 'indefinite article'). They belong to a group of words called 'determiners' (see 154).

2 What are articles used for?

Articles can show whether we are talking about things that are known both to the speaker/writer and to the listener/reader ('definite'), or that are not known to them both ('indefinite').

3 How much do articles matter?

The correct use of the articles is one of the most difficult points in English grammar. Fortunately, most article mistakes do not matter too much. Even if we leave all the articles out of a sentence, it can usually be understood.

Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week?

However, it is better to use the articles correctly if possible. Sections 62-70 give the most important rules and exceptions.

4 speakers of Western European languages

Most languages of Western European origin, and one or two others, have article systems quite like English. However, there are some differences in the way articles are used in English and these other languages. The most important differences are explained in Section 63. Students should read this first if they speak one of the following languages perfectly or very well: French, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Greek, Romanian. There is more detailed information on difficult points in Sections 64-70.

5 speakers of other languages

If a student's language is one (e.g. Russian or Japanese) that is not listed in paragraph 4, he or she may have more difficulty with the correct use of articles. The most important rules are explained in Section 62, and students should read this first. There is more detailed information on difficult points in Sections 64-70.

62 articles (2): basic information (A)

(This Section is for students who speak languages (e.g. Russian or Japanese) that do not have articles like English a/an and the. Students who speak languages which have articles (e.g. German or Portuguese) should read Section 63.)

1 two basic rules

• To say 'You know which I mean', we put the before a noun.

I've been to the doctor. (You know which one: my doctor.)

Have you fed the dogs? (You know which ones I mean.)

Could you pass the salt? (You can see the salt that I want.)

• When we can't say 'You know which I mean', we:

- put a/an before a singular countable noun (see 65).

There's a rat in the kitchen! I need an envelope.

- put no article with a plural or uncountable noun.

She's afraid of rats. I need help.

2 four common mistakes to avoid

• Don't use a/an with plural or uncountable nouns.

John collects stamps. (NOT ... a stamps.)

Our garden needs water. (NOT ... a water.)

• Don't use the to talk about things in general. The does not mean 'all'. (For exceptions, see 68.2.)

Elephants can swim very well. (NOT The elephants can swim ... )

Petrol is expensive. (NOT The petrol ... )

• Don't use articles together with my, this, or other determiners.

my work (NOT the my work)

this problem (NOT the this problem)

a friend of mine (NOT a my friend)

• Don't use singular countable nouns alone, without an article or other determiner. We can say a cat, the cat, my cat, this cat, any cat, either cat or every cat, but not just cat. (For exceptions, see 70.)

Give it to the cat. (NOT Give it to cat.)

Annie is a doctor. (NOT Annie is doctor.)

For more detailed information about articles, see the following sections.

63 articles (3): basic information (B)

(This Section is for students who speak a language that has articles: e.g. French, German, Swedish, Norwegian, Spanish, Italian, Greek. If you speak a language without articles - for example Russian or Japanese - read Section 62.)

Articles are often used in similar ways in English and other languages, but there are some differences. The most important are as follows.

1 talking in general

In English, when we are talking about people or things in general, we do not usually use the with uncountable or plural nouns.

Life is complicated. (NOT The life is complicated.)

My sister loves horses. (NOT ... the horses.)

2 talking about jobs, types etc

In English, we normally put a/an with a singular noun that is used for classifying - saying what job somebody has, what class, group or type somebody or something belongs to, what we use something for, etc.

She's a dentist. (NOT She's dentist.)

I'm looking forward to being a grandmother.

I used my shoe as a hammer.

For more detailed information about articles, see the following Sections.

64 articles (4): more about the

1 the = 'you know which one(s)'

The usually means something like 'you know which I mean'. We use the before a noun (singular, plural or uncountable) when our listener/reader knows (or can easily see) which particular person(s), thing(s) etc we are talking about.

Compare:

- I'm going to the post office. (The listener knows which: the usual one.)

Is there a post office near here? (Any post office.)

- I didn't like the film. (The one that the speaker and listener saw.)

Let's go and see a film. (The speaker doesn't say which one.)

- She arrived on the 8.15 train. (The speaker says which train.)

She arrived in an old taxi. (The speaker doesn't say which taxi.)

- Did you wash the clothes? (The listener knows which clothes.)

I need to buy clothes. (The listener does not know which clothes.)

- What did you do with the coffee I bought? (The speaker says which coffee.)

I don't drink coffee. (Any coffee.)

Our listener/reader may know which one(s) we mean because:

a) we have mentioned it/them before

She's got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy's fourteen and the girl's eight.

So what did you do then? ~ Gave the money straight back to the policeman.

(The listener has already heard about the money and the policeman.)

b) we say which one(s) we mean

Who are the girls over there with John?

Tell Pat the story about John and Susie. I'll try the green shirt.

c) it is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean

Could you close the door? (Only one door is open.)

Ann's in the kitchen. Could you feed the dogs?

Did you enjoy the party? What's the time?

2 the = 'the only one(s) around'

The listener may know which one we mean because there is no choice - there is only one (e.g. the sun, the moon, the earth, the world, the universe, the future) or there is only one in our part of the world (e.g. the government).

I haven't seen the sun for days. Do you trust the government?

People used to think the earth was flat.

3 superlatives

We usually use the with superlatives (see 141-146) because there is normally only one best, biggest etc individual or group (so it is clear which one(s) we are talking about). For the same reason, we usually use the with first, next, last, same and only.

I'm the oldest in my family. Can I have the next pancake?

We went to the same school.

4 the meaning 'the well-known'

After a name, an identifying expression with the is often used to make it clear that the person referred to is 'the well-known one'.

She married Richard Burton, the actor.

I'd like you to meet Cathy Parker, the novelist.

5 possessives and demonstratives

We do not use the with possessives or demonstratives.

This is my uncle. (NOT the my uncle.)

Is that Mary's car? (NOT the Mary's car?)

I like this beer. (NOT ... the this beer.)

6 proper nouns (names)

We do not usually use the with singular proper nouns (there are some exceptions - see 70.17-18).

Mary lives in Switzerland. (NOT The Mary lives in the Switzerland.)

But note the use of the (pronounced /ði:/) with a person's name to mean 'the well-known'.

My name's lames Bond. ~ What, not the lames Bond?

7 things in general

We usually use no article, not the, to talk about things in general - the does not mean' all'. (For details and exceptions, see 68.)

Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.)

Life is hard. (NOT The life is hard.)

8 pronunciation

The is normally pronounced /ði:/ before a vowel and /ðə/ before a consonant.

Compare:

the ice /ði: aɪs/   the snow /ðə snəʊ/

The choice between /ði:/ and /ðə/ depends on pronunciation, not spelling. We pronounce /ði:/ before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.

the hour /ði: 'aʊə(r)/  the MP //ði: em 'pi:/

And we pronounce /ðə/ before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.

the university /ðə ju:nɪvɜ:səti/

the one-pound coin /ðə 'wʌn 'paʊnd 'kɔɪn/

We sometimes pronounce a stressed /ði:/ before a hesitation, or when we want to stress the following word, even if it begins with a consonant.

He's the /ði:/ - just a moment - deputy assistant vice-president.

I've found the /ði:/ present for Angela!

For the town, the country, the sea, the mountains, etc, see 69.4.

For on the bus, at the hairdresser's, etc, see 69.5.

For other advanced points, see 69.

65 articles (5): more about a/an

1 countable and uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which we can count.

a cat - three cats

a secretary - four secretaries

a plan - two plans

Uncountable nouns are the names of materials, liquids and other things which we do not usually see as separate objects.

wool (BUT NOT a wool, two wools)

water (BUT NOT a water, three waters)

weather (BUT NOT a weather, four weathers)

energy (BUT NOT an energy, several energies)

For more detailed information, see 148-149.

2 a/an with singular countable nouns

We normally use a/an only with singular countable nouns.

a secretary   an office

BUT NOT a salt  OR an offices

For expressions like a good two hours, see 532.6.

3 uses of a/an

A/an does not add much to the meaning of a noun - it is like a weak form of 'one'. It has several common uses.

a) one person or thing

We can use a/an when we talk about one person or thing.

There's a police car outside.

My brother's married to a doctor. Andy lives in an old house.

b) anyone member of a class.

We can use a/an when we talk about any one member of a class.

A doctor must like people. (= any doctor)

I would like to live in an old house. (= any old house)

c) classifying and defining

We can use a/an when we classify or define people and things - when we say what they are, what job they do, or what they are used for.

She's a doctor.

I'm looking forward to being a grandmother.

A glider is a plane with no engine.

Don't use your plate as an ashtray.

d) descriptions

A/an is common before nouns that are used in descriptions.

She's a nice person. That was a lovely evening.

He's got a friendly face. It's an extremely hot day.

4 when a/an cannot be left out

We do not normally leave out a/an in negative expressions, after prepositions or after fractions.

Lend me your pen. ~I haven't got a pen. (NOT I haven't got pen.)

You mustn't go out without a coat. (NOT ... without coat.)

three-quarters of a pound (NOT three quarters of pound)

And we do not leave out a/an when we say what jobs people have, or how things are used (see above).

She's an engineer. (NOT She's engineer.)

I used my shoe as a hammer. (NOT ... as hammer.)

5 when a/an is not used: adjectives alone; possessives

A/an cannot normally be used with an adjective alone (without a noun).

Compare:

It's a good car. It's good. (NOT It's a good.)

A/an cannot be used together with a possessive. Instead, we can use the structure a ... of mine/yours etc (see 443).

He's a friend of mine. (NOT He's a my friend.)

6 a/an and the

Instead of a/an, we use the when we want to say 'You and I both know which one I mean'. Compare:

She lives in a big house. (The hearer doesn't know which one.)

She lives in the big house over there. (The hearer knows which one.)

For details, see 64.

7 a and an: the difference

We do not normally pronounce the sound /ə/ before a vowel. So before a vowel, the article a (/ə/) changes to an. Compare:

a rabbit   a lemon   an elephant   an orange

The choice between a and an depends on pronunciation, not spelling. We use an before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.

an hour /ən 'aʊər/ an MP /ən em 'pi:/

And we use a before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.

a university /ə ju:nɪ'vɜ:əti/   a one-pound coin /ə 'wʌn .../

Some people say an, not a, before words beginning with h if the first syllable is unstressed.

an hotel (a hotel is more common)

an historic occasion (a historic ... is more common)

(BUT NOT an housewife - the first syllable is stressed.)

A is sometimes pronounced /eɪ/ before a hesitation, when we want to emphasise the following word, or when we want to make a contrast with the.

I think I'll have a /eɪ/ - chocolate ice cream.

It's a /eɪ/ reason - it's not the only reason.

66 articles (6): no article with plural and uncountable nouns

1 a/an not used

Plural and uncountable nouns (e.g. cats, wool - see 65.1) cannot normally be used with a/an (because a/an has a similar meaning to 'one'). Instead, we most often use no article.

There were cats in every room. (NOT ... a cats ... )

Doctors generally work long hours. He's got very big ears.

Her coat is made of pure wool.

What's that? ~ I think it's pepper.

2 confusing nouns

Some nouns that are countable in some other languages are uncountable in English (see 148.3 for a list).

I need information and advice. (NOT an information and an advice)

You've made very good progress. (NOT a very good progress.)

And note that we never use a/an with weather or English.

We're having terrible weather. (NOT a terrible weather.)

She speaks very good English. (NOT a very good English.)

3 some and any

Instead of no article, we can sometimes use some or any.

We met some nice French girls on holiday.

Have you got any matches?

For details, see 67.

4 the

Instead of no article, we use the when we want to say 'You and I both know which I mean' (see 64). Compare:

- I'm working with children. (The hearer doesn't know which ones.)

How are the children? (= the hearer's children)

- We need salt. (= any salt)

Could you pass the salt? (The hearer can see the salt that is wanted.)

But we usually use no article, not the, to talk about people, things etc in general (see 68).

Are dogs more intelligent than cats? (NOT ... the dogs ... the cats)

Everybody likes music. (NOT ... the music.)

For expressions like a coffee, a knowledge or Spanish, see 148.4, 6.

67 articles (7): the difference between some/any and no article

1 use with uncountable and plural nouns

Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with some/any or with no article. There is not always a great difference of meaning.

We need (some) cheese. I didn't buy (any) eggs.

Some is used especially in affirmative sentences; any is more common in questions and negatives (for details, see 547).

2 some/any or no article?

We prefer some/any when we are thinking about limited but rather indefinite numbers or quantities - when we don't know, care or say exactly how much/many. We prefer no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers or quantities, or not thinking about numbers/quantities at all. Compare:

- We've planted some roses in the garden. (A limited number; the speaker doesn't say how many.)

I like roses. (No idea of number.)

- We got talking to some students. (A limited number.)

Our next-door neighbours are students. (The main idea is classification, not number.)

- I've just bought some books on computing. (A limited number.)

There were books on the desk, on the floor, on the chairs,... (A large number.)

- Would you like some more rice? (An indefinite amount - as much as the listener wants.)

We need rice, sugar, eggs, butter, beer, and toilet paper. (The speaker is thinking just of the things that need to be bought, not of the amounts.)

- Is there any water in the fridge? (The speaker wants a limited amount.)

Is there water on the moon? (The interest is in the existence of water, not the amount.)

- This engine hardly uses any petrol. (The interest is in the amount.)

This engine doesn't use petrol. (The interest is in the type of fuel, not the amount.)

We do not use some/any when it is clear exactly how much/many we are talking about. Compare:

- You've got some great books.

You've got pretty toes. (A definite number - ten. You've got some pretty toes would suggest that the speaker is not making it clear how many -perhaps six or seven!)

For details of the difference between some and any, see 547.

For full details of the uses of some, see 546; for any, see 55.

68 articles (8): talking in general

1 the does not mean 'all'

We do not use the with uncountable or plural nouns to talk about things in general- to talk about all books, all people or all life, for example. The does not mean 'all'. Instead, we use no article. Compare:

- Move the books off that chair and sit down. (= particular books)

Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.)

- I'm studying the life of Beethoven. (= one particular life)

Life is complicated. (NOT The life ... )

- Where's the cheese?~ I ate it. 

I love cheese.

- Why has the light gone out?

Nothing can travel faster than light.

- I've joined the local Dramatic Society.

It's not always easy to fit in with society.

- I never really understood the nature of my father's work.

She's very interested in nature, especially animals and birds.

- Write your name in the space at the bottom of the page.

Would you like to travel into space?

Note that most (meaning 'the majority of') is used without the.

Most birds can fly. (NOT The most ... )

Most of the children got very tired. (NOT The most ... )

2 generalisations with singular countable nouns

Sometimes we talk about things in general by using the with a singular countable noun.

Schools should concentrate more on the child and less on exams.

This is common with the names of scientific instruments and inventions, and musical instruments.

Life would be quieter without the telephone.

The violin is more difficult than the piano.

We can also generalise by talking about one example of a class, using a/an (meaning 'any') with a singular countable noun.

A baby deer can stand as soon as it's born.

A child needs plenty of love.

Note that we cannot use a/an in this way when we are generalising about all of the members of a group together.

The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. (NOT A tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. The sentence is about the whole tiger family, not about individuals.)

Do you like horses? (NOT Do you like a horse?)

For the use of the + adjective to generalise about groups (e.g. the old, the blind) see 17.

69 articles (9): the (difficult cases)

It is sometimes difficult to know whether or not to use the. For example, we use no article to generalise with uncountable and plural words (see 68); but we use the to show that the listener/reader knows which people or things we are talking about (see 64). Sometimes both these meanings come together, and it is difficult to know which form is correct. The grammatical distinctions in this area are not very clear; often the same idea can be expressed both with the and with no article. The following notes may help.

1 groups: nurses or the nurses; railways or the railways?

When we generalise about members of a group, we usually use no article. But if we talk about the group as a whole - as if it was a well-known unit - we are more likely to use the. Compare:

- Nurses mostly work very hard.

The nurses have never gone on strike.

- Farmers often vote Conservative.

What has this government done for the farmers?

- It's difficult for railways to make a profit. (any railways)

The railways are getting more and more unreliable. (our well-known railways)

- Stars vary greatly in size.

The stars are really bright tonight.

This often happens when we talk about nationalities. Compare:

New Zealanders don't like to be mistaken for Australians.

The Australians suffered heavy losses in the First World War.

2 French painters; the Impressionists

We are more likely to use the if we are talking about a 'closed' group or class with a relatively definite, limited number of members. Compare:

- French painters (a large, indefinite group)

the Impressionists (a particular artistic movement; we know more or less who belonged to the group)

- 19th-century poets

the Romantic poets (Shelley, Keats, Byron, Wordsworth and a few others)

- British comprehensive schools

the British 'Public Schools' (a limited group of expensive high-prestige schools)

Specialists are likely to use the for groups or classes that they study or know about. Compare:

Metals are mostly shiny.

Next term we're going to study the metals in detail.

3 1960s music; the music of the 1960s

Some expressions are 'half-general' - in the middle between general and particular. If we talk about 1960s music, eighteenth-century history or poverty in Britain, we are not talking about all music, history or poverty, but these are still rather general ideas (compared with the music we heard last night, the history I did at school or the poverty I grew up in). In these 'half-general' expressions, we usually use no article. However, the is often used when the noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of. Compare:

- 1960s music   - African butterflies

the music of the 1960s   the butterflies of Africa

4 physical environment: the town, the sea

The is used with a number of rather general expressions referring to our physical environment - the world around us and its climate. The suggests that everybody is familiar with what we are talking about. Examples are: the town, the country, the mountains, the sea, the seaside, the wind, the rain, the weather, the sunshine, the night.

My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains.

British people talk about the weather a lot.

I love listening to the wind.

But note that no article is used with nature, society or space when these have a 'general' meaning (see 68).

5 on the bus; at the hairdresser

We use the (with a singular countable noun) when we talk about some kinds of thing that are part of everybody's lives, like 'the bus' or 'the hairdresser'. In this case the bus, for example, does not mean 'one bus that you know about'; we use the to suggest that taking a bus is a common experience that we all share.

I have some of my best ideas when I'm on the bus.

Most of my friends go to the hairdresser two or three times a month.

Do you sing in the bath?

I've stopped reading the newspaper because it's too depressing.

For similar expressions with no article (e.g. in bed, in hospital), see 70.1.

6 She kicked him on the knee; He sat at the side

We sometimes use the even when it is not exactly clear which of several particular persons or things we are talking about. This can happen when there are several similar possibilities, and it is unnecessary to be more definite.

Lying by the side of the road we saw the wheel of a car. (NOT ... a wheel of a car.)

John Perkins is the son of a rich banker. (who may have more than one son)

She kicked him on the knee.

The is often used like this with side and wrong.

I usually sit at the side in church. 

He's the wrong man for me.

(on the phone) I'm sorry. You've got a/the wrong number.

70 articles (10): special rules and exceptions

1 common expressions without articles

In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement, normally countable nouns are treated as uncountables, without articles. Examples are:

to/ at/ in/from school/ university/ college

to/at/in/into/from church to/in/into/out of bed/prison

to/in/into/out of hospital (BrE) to/at/from work

to/at sea to/in/from town

at/from home  leave home

leave/start/enter school/university/college

by day at night

by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boat  on foot

by radio/phone/letter/mail

With place nouns, expressions with or without articles may have different meanings. Compare:

- I met her at college. (when we were students)

I'll meet you at the college. (The college is just a meeting place.)

- Jane's in hospital. (as a patient)

I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.

- Who smokes in class? (= ... in the classroom?)

Who in the class smokes? (= Who is a smoker ... ?)

In American English, university and hospital are not used without articles.

She was unhappy at the university.

Say that again and I'll put you in the hospital.

2 double expressions

Articles are often dropped in double expressions, particularly with prepositions.

with knife and fork   on land and sea   day after day

with hat and coat   arm in arm   husband and wife

from top to bottom   inch by inch

For cases like the bread and (the) butter, see 178.

3 possessive's

Nouns lose their articles after possessive's.

the coat that belongs to John = John's coat (NOT John's the coat OR the John's coat)

the economic problems of America = America's economic problems (NOT the America's economic problems)

But the possessive noun itself may have an article.

the wife of the boss = the boss's wife

4 noun modifiers

When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun's article is dropped.

lessons in how to play the guitar = guitar lessons

a spot on the sun = a sunspot

5 both and all

We often leave out the after both.

Both (the) children are good at maths.

And we often leave out the between all and a number.

All (the) three brothers were arrested.

We usually leave out the after all in all day, all night, all week, all year, all winter and all summer.

He's been away all week. I haven't seen her all day.

6 kind of etc

We usually leave out a/an after kind of, sort of, type of and similar expressions (see 551).

What kind of (a) person is she?

Have you got a cheaper sort of radio?

They've developed a new variety of sheep.

7 amount and number

The is dropped after the amount/number of

I was surprised at the amount of money collected. (NOT ... of the money)

The number of unemployed is rising steadily.

8 man and woman

Unlike other singular countable nouns, man and woman can be used in a general sense without articles.

Man and woman were created equal.

But we more often use a woman and a man, or men and women.

A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle. (old feminist joke)

Men and women have similar abilities and needs.

Man is also commonly used to mean 'the human race', though many people regard this usage as sexist and prefer to avoid it (see 222.6).

How did Man first discover fire?

9 days, months and seasons

We drop the when we mean 'the day/month before or after this one'.

Where were you last Saturday? See you on Thursday.

I was away in April. We're moving next September.

To talk about the seasons in general, we can say spring or the spring, summer or the summer, etc. There is little difference.

Rome is lovely in (the) spring. I like (the) winter best.

When we are talking about particular springs, summers etc, we are more likely to use the.

I worked very hard in the summer that year.

10 musical instruments

We often use the + singular when we talk about musical instruments in general, or about playing musical instruments.

The violin is really difficult. Who's that on the piano?

But the is often dropped when talking about jazz or pop, and sometimes when talking about classical music.

This recording was made with Miles Davis on trumpet.

She studied oboe and saxophone at the Royal Academy of Music.

11 (the) radio, (the) cinema, (the) theatre and television

When we talk about our use of these forms of entertainment, we generally say the radio, the cinema, the theatre, but television or TV

I always listen to the radio while I'm driving.

It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child.

What's on TV?

The is often dropped in all four cases when we talk about these institutions as art forms or professions.

Cinema is different from theatre in several ways.

He's worked in radio and television all his life.

12 jobs and positions

The is not used in titles like Queen Elizabeth, President Lincoln. Compare:

Queen Elizabeth had dinner with President Kennedy.

The Queen had dinner with the President.

And the is not usually used in the complement of a sentence, when we say that somebody has or gains a unique position (the only one in the organisation). Compare:

- They appointed him Head Librarian. - He was elected President in 1879.

Where's the librarian? I want to see the President.

13 exclamations

We use a/an with singular countable nouns in exclamations after What.

What a lovely dress! (NOT What lovely dress!)

Note that a/an cannot be used in exclamations with uncountable nouns.

What nonsense! (NOT What a nonsense!)

What luck!

14 illnesses

The names of illnesses and pains are usually uncountable, with no article, in standard British English (for more details, see 148.7).

Have you had appendicitis? I've got toothache again.

A/an is used in a few cases such as a cold, a headache.

I've got a horrible cold. Have you got a headache?

The can be used informally with a few common illnesses.

I think I've got (the) flu. She's never had (the) measles.

American usage is different in some cases.

I've got a toothache / an earache / a backache / a stomachache. (BrE I've got toothache/earache etc)

15 parts of the body etc

When talking about parts of someone's body, or about their possessions, we usually use possessives, not the.

Katy broke her arm climbing. (NOT Katy broke the arm climbing.)

He stood in the doorway, his coat over his arm. (NOT ... the coat over the arm

But the is common after prepositions, especially when we are talking about blows, pains and other things that often happen to parts of people's bodies.

She hit him in the stomach. He was shot in the leg.

Can't you look me in the eye?

16 measurements

Note the use of the in measuring expressions beginning with by.

Do you sell eggs by the kilo or by the dozen?

He sits watching TV by the hour. Can I pay by the month?

A/an is used to relate one measuring unit to another.

sixty pence a kilo    thirty miles an hour    twice a week

17 place names

We use the with these kinds of place names:

• seas (the Atlantic)

• mountain groups (the Himalayas)

• island groups (the West Indies)

• rivers (the Rhine)

• deserts (the Sahara)

• most hotels (the Grand Hotel)

• most cinemas and theatres (the Odeon; the Playhouse)

• most museums and art galleries (the British Museum; the Frick)

We usually use no article with:

• continents, countries, states, counties, departments etc (Africa, Brazil, Texas, Berkshire, Westphalia)

• towns (Oxford)

• streets (New Street, Willow Road)

• lakes (Lake Michigan)

Exceptions: places whose name is (or contains) a common noun like republic, state, union (e.g. the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States).

Note also the Netherlands, and its seat of government The Hague.

The is unusual in the titles of the principal public buildings and organisations of a town, when the title begins with the town name.

Oxford University (NOT the Oxfortl University)

Hull Station (NOT the Hull Station)

Salisbury Cathedral   Manchester City Council

Birmingham Airport   Cheltenham Football Club

With the names of less important institutions, usage varies.

(The) East Oxford Community Centre. (The) Newbury School of English.

Names of single mountains vary. Most have no article.

Everest    Kilimanjaro    Snowdon    Table Mountain

But definite articles are usually translated in the English versions of European mountain names, except those beginning Le Mont.

The Meije (= La Meije) The Matterhorn (= Das Matterhorn)

BUT Mont Blanc (NOT the Mont Blanc)

18 newspapers and magazines

The names of newspapers usually have the.

The Times   The Washington Post

The names of magazines do not always have the.

New Scientist

19 abbreviated styles

We usually leave out articles in abbreviated styles (see 1).

newspaper headlines | MAN KILLED ON MOUNTAIN
headings | Introduction   Chapter 2   Section B
picture captions | Mother and child
notices, posters etc | SUPER CINEMA, RITZ HOTEL
instructions | Open packet at other end.
numbering and labelling | Go through door A. Control to Car 27: can you hear me? Turn to page 26. (NOT ... the page 26.)
dictionary entries | palm inner surface of hand ...
lists | take car to garage; pay phone bill; ...
notes | J thinks company needs new office

For articles with abbreviations (NATO, the USA), see 2.2-3.

For the in double comparatives (the more, the better), see 139.5.

For a with few and little, see 329.

For a with hundred, thousand etc, see 389.1l.

For the blind etc, see 17.l.

For the Japanese etc, see 17.2.

For next and the next, see 375; for last and the last, see 314.

For the instead of enough, see 187.8.

For another two days, a good three weeks etc, see 532.6.

71 as and though: special word order

adjective/adverb/noun + as + clause

As and though can be used in a special structure after an adjective, adverb or noun. In this case they both mean 'although', and suggest an emphatic contrast. (In AmE only as is normally used like this; though is unusual.)

Cold as/though it was, we went out. (= Although it was very cold, ... )

Bravely as/though they fought, they had no chance of winning.

Much as/though I respect your point of view, I can't agree.

Strange though it may seem, I don't like watching cricket.

Scot though she was, she supported the English team.

Occasionally as can be used in this structure to mean 'because'.

Tired as she was, I decided not to disturb her.

In American English, as ... as is common.

As cold as it was, we went out.

For the word order in structures like I did as good a job as I could, see 14.

72 as, because, since and for

All four of these words can be used to refer to the reason for something. (For as, since and for referring to time, see 73, 208 and 522.) They are not used in the same way.

1 as and since

As and since are used when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it is not the most important part of the sentence. As- and since-clauses often come at the beginning of sentences.

As it's raining again, we'll have to stay at home.

Since he had not paid his bill, his electricity was cut off.

As- and since-clauses are relatively formal; in an informal style, the same ideas are often expressed with so.

It's raining again, so we'll have to stay at home.

2 because

Because puts more emphasis on the reason, and most often introduces new information which is not known to the listener/reader.

Because I was ill for six months, I lost my job.

When the reason is the most important part of the sentence, the because-clause usually comes at the end. It can also stand alone. Since and as cannot be used like this.

Why am I leaving? I'm leaving because I'm fed up!

(NOT ... I'm leaving as/since I'm fed up!)

Why are you laughing? ~ Because you look so funny.

A because-clause can be used to say how one knows something.

You didn't tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room.

(= ... I know because I found ... )

For more information about because, see 94.

3 for

For introduces new information, but suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. A for-clause could almost be in brackets. For-clauses never come at the beginning of sentences, and cannot stand alone. For, used in this sense, is most common in a formal written style.

I decided to stop and have lunch - for I was feeling hungry.

73 as, when and while: simultaneous events

To talk about actions or situations that take place at the same time, we can use as, when or while. There are some differences.

1 'backgrounds': as, when or while

We can use all three words to introduce a longer 'background' action or situation, which is/was going on when something else happens/happened.

As I was walking down the street I saw foe driving a Porsche.

The telephone always rings when you are having a bath.

While they were playing cards, somebody broke into the house. 

As-, when- and while-clauses can go at the beginning or end of sentences, but as-clauses usually introduce less important information, and most often go at the beginning.

A progressive tense is usually used for the longer 'background' action or situation (was walking; are having; were playing). But as and while can be used with a simple tense, especially with a 'state' verb like sit, lie, or grow.

As I sat reading the paper, the door burst open.

2 simultaneous long actions: while; as

We usually use while to say that two longer actions or situations go/went on at the same time. We can use progressive or simple tenses.

While you were reading the paper, I was working.

John cooked supper while I watched TV.

As is used (with simple tenses) to talk about two situations which develop or change together.

As I get older I get more optimistic.

We prefer when to refer to ages and periods of life.

When I was a child we lived in London. (NOT As/While I was a child ... )

His parents died when he was twelve. (NOT ... while he was twelve.)

3 simultaneous short actions: (just) as; (just) when

We usually use (just) as to say that two short actions or events happen/happened at the same time.

As I opened my eyes I heard a strange voice.

Mary always arrives just as I start work.

(Just) when is also possible.

I thought of it just when you opened your mouth.

4 reduced clauses with when and while

It is often possible to leave out subject + be after when (especially when it means 'whenever'), and after while. This is rather formal.

Don't forget to signal when turning right.

(= ... when you are turning right.)

Climb when ready.

(= ... when you are ready.)

While in Germany, he got to know a family of musicians.

(= While he was ... )

Note that as is usually pronounced /əz/ (see 616).

For other uses of as, when and while, see the Index.

74 as if and as though; like

1 meaning

As if and as though are both used to say what a situation seems like. They can refer to something that we think may be true.

It looks as if/though it's going to rain.

It sounds as if/though John's going to change his job.

They can also be used to talk about things which we know are not true.

I feel as if/though I'm dying.

She was acting as if/though she was in charge.

2 tenses

When we talk about things which we know are not true, we can use a past tense with a present meaning after as if/though. This emphasises the meaning of unreality. Compare:

- She looks as if she is rich. (Perhaps she is.)

He talks as if he was rich. (But he is definitely not.)

- You look as though you know each other.

Why is he looking at me as though he knew me? I've never seen him before.

In a formal style, were can be used instead of was in an 'unreal' comparison.

This is common in American English.

He talks as if he were rich.

3 like meaning 'as if/though'

Like is often used in the same way as as if/though, especially in an informal style. This used to be typically AmE, but it is now common in BrE.

It seems like it's going to rain.

He sat there smiling like it was his birthday.

For the difference between like and as, see 326.

75 as long as

1 tenses

After as long as, we use a present tense to express a future idea.

I'll remember that day as long as I live. (NOT ... as long as I will live.)

For other conjunctions which are used in this way, see 580.

2 conditions

As/so long as is often used to state conditions.

You can take my car as/so long as you drive carefully.

(= ... on condition that you drive carefully.)

3 emphatic use

Before a number, as long as can be used to suggest great length.

These meetings can last as long as four hours.

For a similar use of as much/many as, see 136.6

76 as such

Not ... as such is used to say that something is not exactly what has been suggested.

So you went to Japan on holiday? ~ Well, not a holiday as such - I went on business. But I managed quite a lot of sightseeing.

I'm not a teacher as such, but I've taught English to some of my friends.

77 as usual

Note that in this expression we use the adjective usual, not the adverb usually.

The train's late, as usual. (NOT ... as usually.)

78 as well as

1 meaning

As well as has a similar meaning to 'not only ... but also'.

She's got a goat, as well as five cats and three dogs.

He's clever as well as nice. (= He's not only nice, but also clever.)

She works in television as well as writing children's books.

When some information is already known to the listener/reader, we put this with as well as.

As well as birds, some mammals can fly. (NOT Birds can fly, as well as some

mammals. )

They speak French in parts of Italy as well as France. (NOT They speak

French in France as well as parts of Italy.)

2 verbs after as well as

When we put a verb after as well as, we most often use the -ing form. 

Smoking is dangerous as well as making you smell bad. (NOT ... as well as it makes you smell bad.)

As well as breaking his leg, he hurt his arm. (NOT ... as well as he broke his leg ... )

After an infinitive in the main clause, an infinitive without to is possible.

I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children.

Note the difference between:

She sings as well as playing the piano.

(= She not only plays, but also sings.)

She sings as well as she plays the piano.

(= Her singing is as good as her playing.)

For as well, also and too, see 46-47.

79 ask

1 ask and ask for

Ask for: ask somebody to give something

Ask without for: ask somebody to tell something.

Compare:

- Don't ask me for money. (NOT Don't ask me money.)

Don't ask me my name. (More common than Don't ask me for my name.)

- Ask for the menu.

Ask the price.

Ask is sometimes used without for when talking about asking for sums of money, especially in connection with buying, selling and renting.

They're asking £500 a month rent.

How much is the car?~ I'm asking fifteen hundred.

Note also the expressions ask a lot of somebody, ask too much of somebody, ask a favour of somebody and ask (for) permission.

2 infinitive structures

We can use infinitive structures after ask (see 282-283).

ask + infinitive

I asked to go home. (= I asked permission to go home.)

ask + object + infinitive

I asked John to go home. (= I told John I would like him to go home.)

ask + for + object + infinitive

I asked for the children to have extra milk.

I asked for the parcel to be sent to my home address.

Note the difference between these two sentences:

I asked John to go home. (I wanted John to go home.)

I asked John if I could go home. (I wanted to go home myself.)

80 at/in and to

1 the difference

At and in are generally used for position (for the difference, see 81); to is used for movement or direction. Compare:

- He works at the market. - My father lives in Canada.

He gets to the market by bike. I go to Canada to see him whenever I can.

2 expressions of purpose

If we mention the purpose of a movement before we mention the destination, we usually use at/in before the place. Compare:

- Let's go to Marcel's for coffee.

Let's go and have coffee at Marcel's. (NOT Let's go and have cofee to Marcel's.)

- I went to Canada to see my father.

I went to see my father in Canada. (NOT I went to see my father to Canada.)

3 targets

After some verbs, at is used with the 'target' of a perception or non-verbal communication. Common examples are look, smile, wave, frown.

Why are you looking at her like that?

Because she smiled at me.

At is also used after some verbs referring to attacks or aggressive behaviour.

Common examples are shoot, laugh, throw, shout and point.

It's a strange feeling to have somebody shoot at you.

If you can't laugh at yourself, who can you laugh at?

Stop throwing stones at the cat, darling.

You don't need to shout at me.

In my dream, everybody was pointing at me and laughing.

Throw to, shout to and point to are used when there is no idea of attack.

Please do not throw food to the animals.

Could you shout to Phil and tell him it's breakfast time?

'The train's late again,' she said, pointing to the timetable.

Arrive is generally followed by at or in; never by to.

We should arrive at Pat's in time for lunch. (NOT ... arrive to Pat's ... )

When did you arrive in New Zealand? (NOT ... to New Zealand?)

For in and into, see 269.

81 at, on and in: place

1 at

At is used to talk about position at a point.

It's very hot at the centre of the earth.

Turn right at the next corner.

Sometimes we use at with a larger place, if we just think of this as a point: a stage on a journey or a meeting place, for example. Compare:

- The plane stops for an hour at Frankfurt. (a point on a journey)

She lives in Frankfurt. (somebody's home)

- Let's meet at the club. (a meeting point)

It was warm and comfortable in the club. (a place to spend time)

We very often use at before the name of a building, when we are thinking not of the building itself but of the activity that happens there.

There's a good film at the cinema in Market Street.

Eat at the Steak House ~ best food in town.

Sorry I didn't phone last night - I was at the theatre.

At is particularly common with proper names used for buildings or organisations. Compare:

- I first met your father at/in Harrods.

I first met your father in a shop.

- She works at Legal and General Insurance.

She works in a big insurance company.

At is used to say where people study.

He's at the London School of Economics.

We use at with the name of a city to talk about the city's university. Compare:

He's a student at Oxford.   He lives in Cambridge.

At is also used before the names of group activities.

at a party   at a meeting   at a concert

at a lecture   at the match

2 on

On is used to talk about position on a line (for example a road or a river).

His house is on the way from Aberdeen to Dundee.

Stratford is on the river Avon.

But in is used for the position of things which form part of the line.

There's a misprint in line 6 on page 22.

Who's the good-looking boy in the sixth row?

On is used for position on a surface.

Hurry up - supper's on the table!

That picture would look better on the other wall.

There's a big spider on the ceiling.

On can mean 'attached to'.

Why do you wear that ring on your first finger?

There aren't many apples on the tree this year.

On is also used for position by a lake or sea.

Bowness is on Lake Windermere.

Southend-on-Sea

3 in

In is used for position inside large areas, and in three-dimensional space (when something is surrounded on all sides).

I don't think he's in his office. Let's go for a walk in the woods.

She grew up in Swaziland. I last saw her in the car park.

He lived in the desert for three years.

4 public transport

We use on (and off ) to talk about travel using public transport (buses, trains, planes and boats), as well as (motor)cycles and horses.

There's no room on the bus; let's get off again.

He's arriving on the 3.15 train. (NOT ... in/with the 3.15 train.)

We're booked on flight 604.

It took five days to cross the Atlantic on the Queen Elizabeth.

I'll go down to the shop on my bike.

But we use in and out (of) to talk about cars and small private planes and boats.

She came in a taxi.

He fell into the river when he was getting out of his canoe.

5 arrive

We generally use at (not to) after arrive; in is used before very large places.

He arrives at the airport at 15.30. (NOT He arrives to the airport ... )

What time do we arrive in New York?

6 addresses

We generally use at to talk about addresses.

Are you still at the same address?

She lives at 73 Albert Street.

We use in (AmE on) if we just give the name of the street.

She lives in Albert Street.

We use on for the number of the floor.

She lives in a flat on the third floor.

At can be used with a possessive to mean 'at somebody's house or shop'.

Where's Jane? ~ She's round at Pat's.

You're always at the hairdresser's.

7 special expressions

Note these expressions:

in/at church   at home/work   in/at school/college   in a picture

in the sky   in the rain   in a tent   in a hat

The map is on page 32. (BUT I opened the book at page 32.)

in bed / (the) hospital/prison   on a farm   working on the railway

Note that at is usually pronounced /at/, not /æt/ (see 616).

For the difference between at/in and to, see 80.

For smile at, shoot at etc, see 80.3.

82 at, on and in: time

at + clock time

in + part of day

on + particular day

at + weekend, public holiday

in + longer period

1 clock times: at

I usually get up at six o'clock.

I'll meet you at 4.15. Phone me at lunch time.

At is usually left out before what time in an informal style (see paragraph 7).

What time does your train leave?

2 parts of the day: in

I work best in the morning.   three o'clock in the afternoon

We usually go out in the evening.

Note the difference between in the night (mostly used to mean 'during one particular night') and at night (= during any night). Compare:

I had to get up in the night.

I often work at night.

In an informal style, we sometimes use plurals (days etc) with no preposition.

Would you rather work days or nights?

We use on if we say which morning/ afternoon etc we are talking about, or if we describe the morning/afternoon etc.

See you on Monday morning.

We met on a cold afternoon in early spring.

3 days: on

I'll ring you on Tuesday.   My birthday's on March 21st.

They're having a party on Christmas Day.

In an informal style we sometimes leave out on.

I'm seeing her Sunday morning.

We use plurals (Sundays, Mondays etc) to talk about repeated actions.

We usually go and see Granny on Sundays.

4 public holidays and weekends: at

We use at to talk about the whole of the holidays at Christmas, New Year, Easter and Thanksgiving (AmE).

We're having the roof repaired at Easter.

But we use on to talk about one day of the holiday.

Come and see us on Christmas Day.

What are you doing on Easter Monday?

British people say at the weekend; Americans use on.

What did you do at the weekend?

5 longer periods: in

It happened in the week after Christmas.

I was born in March.

Our house was built in the 15th century.

Kent is beautiful in spring.

He died in 1616.

6 other uses of in

In can also be used to say how soon something will happen, and to say how long something takes to happen.

Ask me again in three or four days.

I can run 200 metres in about 30 seconds.

The expression in ... 's time is used to say how soon something will happen, not how long something takes. Compare:

I'll see you again in a month's time. It'll be ready in three weeks' time.

He wrote the book in a month. (NOT ... in a month's time.)

In American English, in can be used in negative sentences, like for, to talk about periods up to the present.

I haven't seen her in years.

7 expressions with no preposition

At/on/in are not normally used in expressions of time before next, last, this, that (sometimes), one, any (in an informal style), each, every, some, all.

See you next week. Come any time.

Are you free this morning? I didn't feel very well that week.

I'm at home every evening. Let's meet one day.

We stayed all day.

These prepositions are not normally used, either, before yesterday, the day before yesterday, tomorrow or the day after tomorrow.

What are you doing the day after tomorrow?

And prepositions are usually dropped in questions beginning What/Which + expression of time, and in answers which only contain an expression of time.

What day is the meeting?

Which week did you say you're on holiday?

What time are you leaving? ~Eight o'clock.

Note that at is usually pronounced /ət/, not /æt/ (see 616).

For the difference between in and during, see 168.

83 at all

1 at all with a negative

We often use at all to emphasise a negative idea.

I didn't understand anything at all. (= I didn't understand even a little.)

She was hardly frightened at all.

2 questions etc

At all can also be used in questions, and with 'non-affirmative' words like if, ever and any.

Do you play poker at all? (= ... even a little?)

He'll come before supper if he comes at all.

You can come whenever you like - any time at all.

3 Not at all

The expression Not at all is used (especially in British English) as a rather formal answer to Thank you (see 545.19) and to Do you mind if ... ? (see 351).

84 at first and first

We use at first to talk about the beginning of a situation, to make a contrast with something different that happens/happened later. At first ... is often followed by but.

At first they were very happy, but then things started going wrong.

The work was hard at first, but I got used to it.

In other cases, we usually prefer first.

That's mine - I saw it first! (NOT ... I saw it at first.)

We lived there when we were first married. (= ... in the early days of our marriage.) (NOT ... when we were at first married.)

First, I want to talk about the history of the problem; then I'll outline the situation today; and then we'll discuss possible solutions. (NOT At first, I want to talk ... )

Note that at last is not the opposite of at first - see 204.

For first(ly) as a discourse marker, See also 157.10.

85 auxiliary verbs

1 the need for auxiliary verbs

In English sentences, a lot of important meanings are expressed by the verb phrase - for example questioning, negation, time, completion, continuation, repetition, willingness, possibility, obligation. But English verbs do not have many different forms: the maximum (except for be) is five (e.g. see, sees, seeing, saw, seen). So to express all these meanings, 'auxiliary' (or 'helping') verbs are added to other verbs. There are two groups.

2 be, do and have

Be is added to other verbs to make progressive and passive forms.

Is it raining? She was imprisoned for three years.

Do is used to make questions, negatives and emphatic forms of non-auxiliary verbs.

Do you smoke? It didn't matter. Do come in.

Have is used to make perfect forms.

What have you done? I realised that I hadn't turned the lights off.

See the Index for details of entries on these forms and their uses, and on non-auxiliary uses of be, do and have.

3 modal auxiliary verbs

The verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must and ought are usually called 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used with other verbs to add various meanings, mostly to do with certainty or obligation.

She may be on holiday.

You must write to Uncle Arthur.

For details, see 353-354 and the entries for each verb.

4 other verb + verb structures

Other verbs (e.g. seem) which are used in verb + verb structures are not usually called 'auxiliary verbs'. One important difference is grammatical. In auxiliary verb structures, questions and negatives are made without do; in other verb + verb structures the auxiliary do has to be added to the first verb. Compare:

- She ought to understand.   - He is swimming.

Ought she to understand?   He is not swimming

- She seems to understand.   - He likes swimming.

Does she seem to understand?   He doesn't like swimming.

86 (a)wake and (a)waken

1 use

Wake is the most common of these four verbs. It can mean 'stop sleeping' or 'make (somebody else) stop sleeping'. It is often followed by up, especially when it means 'stop sleeping'.

I woke up three times in the night.

Wake up! It's time to go to work. (NOT Wake!- ... )

Could you wake me (up) at half past six?

Waken is a more literary alternative to wake (up).

The princess did not waken for a hundred years.

Then the prince wakened her with a kiss.

Awake and awaken are also rather literary words. They can be used to mean 'wake (up)', but are more often used figuratively, to talk not about waking from sleep, but about the waking of emotions, understanding etc.

I slowly awoke to the danger that threatened me.

At first I paid little attention, but slowly my interest awoke.

The smell of her perfume awakened the gipsy's desire.

2 awake and asleep (adjectives)

In informal British English the adjectives awake and asleep are more common in predicative position (after be) than the verb forms waking and sleeping.

Is the baby awake yet? You were asleep at ten o'clock.

87 back and again

Back and again can be used with similar meanings, but there are some differences.

1 back with a verb

With a verb, we use back to suggest a return to an earlier situation, a movement in the opposite direction to an earlier movement, and similar ideas.

Again is not normally used in this way with a verb.

Give me my watch back. (NOT Give me my watch again.)

I'm taking this meat back to the shop. (NOT I'm taking this meat to the shop again.)

2 again with a verb

With a verb, again usually suggests repetition. Compare:

- That was lovely. Can you play it again?

When I've recorded your voice I'll play it back.

- Eric was really bad-mannered. I'm never going to invite him again.

She comes to our parties but she never invites us back.

- I don't think he got your letter. You'd better write again.

If I write to you, will you write back?

Note the difference between sell back (to the same person) and sell again.

The bike you sold me is too small. Can I sell it back to you?

If we buy this house and then have to move somewhere else, how easy will it be to sell it again?

3 cases when back is not used

When the verb itself already expresses the idea of 'return to an earlier situation' or 'movement in the opposite direction', back is not generally used.

Stefan can never return to his country. (More natural than Stefan can never

return back... )

Who opened the window? Could you close it, please? (NOT ...close it back... )

However, again can be used to emphasise the idea of 'return'.

Stefan can never return to his country again.

Who opened the window? Could you close it again, please?

4 adverb particles etc

With adverb particles and prepositional phrases, we can use both back and again to suggest 'return to an earlier situation' etc.

I stood up, and then I sat (back) down (again).

He tasted the apple and spat it (back) out (again).

Go (back) to sleep (again).

I'll be (back) in the office (again) on Monday.

5 ring/call back

Note that ring back (BrE only) and call back can be used to mean both 'return a phone call' and 'repeat a phone call'.

She's not here just now. ~Ask her to ring me back. (= return my call)

I haven't got time to talk now. ~ OK, I'll ring back later. (= ring again)

6 word order

Back is an adverb particle (see 20), and can usually go between a verb and its object, unless this is a pronoun (see 599.4). Again cannot.

Take back your money ~ I don't want it. (OR Take your money back ... )

Count the money again, please. (NOT Count again the money ... )

For other uses of back and again, see a good dictionary.

88 bath and bathe

1 bath

Pronunciation: bath /bɑ:θ/ bathing /'bɑ:θɪŋ/ bathed /bɑ:θt/

This verb is not used in American English. It can have an object.

It's your turn to bath the baby.

And it can be used to mean 'bath oneself'.

I don't think he baths very often.

This use is rather formal; people more often say have/take a bath.

I'm feeling hot and sticky; I think I'll have a bath.

2 bathe

Pronunciation: bathe /beɪð/ bathing /beɪðɪŋ)/ bathed /beɪðd/

Bathe is the American equivalent of bath. (Take a bath is also common.)

It's your turn to bathe the baby. (AmE)

I always bathe before I go to bed. (AmE)(OR ... take a bath)

Bathe can also be used (in both British and American English) to talk about putting water on a part of the body that hurts (for instance sore eyes).

Your eyes are very red - you ought to bathe them.

And bathe can be used (in British English only) to mean 'swim for pleasure'. 

NO BATHING FROM THIS BEACH

This use is rather formal; people more often say have a swim, go for a swim, go swimming or just swim.

Let's go for a swim in the river.

89 be: progressive forms

I am being / you are being etc + adjective/noun

We can use this structure to talk about actions and behaviour, but not usually to talk about feelings. Compare:

- You're being stupid. (= You're doing stupid things.)

I was being very careful. (= I was doing something carefully.)

Who's being a silly baby, then?

- I'm happy just now. (NOT I'm being happy just now.)

I was depressed when you phoned. (NOT I was being depressed ... )

Note the difference between He's being sick (BrE = He's vomiting - bringing

food up from the stomach) and He's sick (= He's ill).

For the use of am being etc in passive verb forms, see 412.2.

90 be with auxiliary do

Normally, be is used without the auxiliary do.

I'm not often sick. (NOT I don't often be sick.)

But do is used to make negative imperative sentences with be (when we tell somebody not to do something).

Don't be silly!   Don't be such a nuisance!

And do be can begin emphatic imperatives.

Do be careful!   Do be quiet, for God's sake!

In an informal style, people sometimes use do with be in one or two other structures which have a similar meaning to imperative sentences.

Why don't you be a good boy and sit down?

If you don't be quiet you'll go straight to bed.

For other auxiliary uses of do, see 159.

91 be + infinitive: I am to ..., you are to... etc

1 plans and arrangements: He is to visit Nigeria

We use this structure in a formal style to talk about official and other plans and arrangements.

The President is to visit Nigeria next month.

We are to get a 10 per cent wage rise in June.

I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.

A perfect infinitive can be used to show that a planned event did not happen.

I was to have started work last week, but I changed my mind.

2 'fate': We were to meet again

Another use is to talk about things which are/were 'hidden in the future', fated to happen.

I thought we were saying goodbye for ever. But we were to meet again, many years later, under very strange circumstances.

3 pre-conditions: If we are to get there in time ...

The structure is common in if-clauses, when the main clause expresses a pre-condition - something that must happen first if something else is to happen.

If we are to get there by lunchtime we had better hurry.

He knew he would have to work hard if he was to pass his exam.

4 orders: You are to do your homework

The structure is used to give orders, often by parents speaking to children.

You are to do your homework before you watch Tv.

She can go to the party, but she's not to be back late.

5 be + passive infinitive: It is not to be removed

Be + passive infinitive is often used in notices and instructions.

am/are/is (not) to be + past participle

This cover is not to be removed.

Sometimes only the passive infinitive is used.

To be taken three times a day after meals. (on a medicine bottle)

Some other common expressions with be + passive infinitive:

There's nothing to be done. She was nowhere to be found.

I looked out of the window, but there was nothing to be seen.

6 tenses

Note that this structure exists only in present and past tenses. We cannot say that somebody has been to go somewhere, or will/must be to go somewhere. Participle structures (being to go) are not possible either.

For other ways of talking about the future, see 211-221.

92 be and have

1 physical conditions: hunger, thirst etc

To talk about experiencing hunger, thirst, heat, cold and certain other common physical conditions, we normally use be (or feel) + adjective, not have + noun. Note the following expressions:

be hungry (NOT have hunger)   be thirsty   be warm

be hot   be cold   be sleepy   be afraid

Note also:

be right   be wrong   be lucky

2 age, height, weight, size and colour

Be is also used to talk about age, height, length, weight, size, shape and colour.

I'm nearly thirty.   (NOT I have nearly thirty.)

She is nearly my age.   He is six feet tall.

I wish I was ten kilos lighter.   What size are your shoes?

The room is ten metres long.   What colour are his eyes?

She is the same height as her father.

Be heavy is not usually used in measuring expressions.

It weighs 37 kilos. (NOT It's 37 kilos heavy.)

For have in expressions like have a bath, have a drink, have a walk, see 236.

93 beat and win

You can win (in) a game, a race, a battle, an argument etc, and you can win a prize, money etc. You can beat a person that you are playing/arguing/fighting etc against. Compare:

My girlfriend usually wins when we play poker.

My girlfriend beat me at poker the first time we played. (NOT My girlfriend won me at poker ... )

Both verbs are irregular:

beat - beat - beaten    win - won - won

94 because

1 because and because of

Because is a conjunction. It is used at the beginning of a clause, before a subject and verb. Because of is a two-word preposition, used before a noun or a pronoun. Compare:

- We were late because it rained. (NOT because of it rained.)

We were late because of the rain. (NOT because the rain.)

- I'm happy because I met you.

I'm happy because of you.

2 position of because-clauses

Because and its clause can go after or before the main clause.

I finished early because I worked fast.

Because I worked fast, I finished early.

Because-clauses can sometimes stand alone, especially as answers or after hesitations.

Why are you crying? ~ Because John and I have had a row.

I don't think I'll go to the party ... Because I'm feeling a bit tired.

3 just because ... (it) doesn't mean ...

This is quite a common structure in informal speech.

Just because you're older than me (it) doesn't mean you can do what you like.

Just because I'm your brother (it) doesn't mean you can keep asking me for money.

For because after reason, see 492.

For the differences between because, as, since and for, see 72.

95 been meaning 'come' or 'gone'

Been is often used as a past participle of come and go.

Granny has been to see us twice since Christmas.

I haven't been to the theatre for ages.

Have you ever been to Northern Ireland?

Note that been is only used for completed visits. Compare:

- The postman's already been. (He has come and gone away again.)

Jane's come, so we can start work. (She has come and is still here.)

- I've been to London three times this week.

Where's Lucy? ~ She's gone to London.

For be gone, see 229.

96 before: adverb

1 'at any time before now/then'

We can use before to mean 'at any time before now'. In British English, a present perfect tense is normally used.

I think I've seen this film before.  Have you ever been here before?

Before can also mean 'at any time before then - before the past moment that we are talking about'. In this case a past perfect tense is used.

She realised that she had seen him before.

2 counting back from a past time: eight years before

We also use before after a time expression to 'count back' from a past moment - to say how much earlier something else had happened. A past perfect tense is normally used.

When I went back to the town that I had left eight years before, everything was different. (NOT ... that I had left before eight years ... )

To count back from the present, we use ago, not before (see also 33).

I left school four years ago. (NOT ... four years before / before four years)

3 before, before that and first

Before is not generally used alone to mean 'first' or 'before that happens'.

Instead we use first or before that.

I want to get married one day. But before that / first, I want to travel. (NOT ... But before, I want to travel.)

For the difference between before and ever, see 191.

For before as a conjunction and preposition, see 97-98.

97 before: conjunction

before + clause, + clause
clause + before + clause

1 position of before-clause

Before can join one clause to another. Compare:

Before I have breakfast, I spend half an hour doing physical exercises.

I prefer to do my exercises before I have breakfast.

(In both sentences, the speaker does exercises first and then has breakfast. In the second example, the before-clause is given more importance because it comes at the end. Note the comma in the first example.)

Before he did military service, he went to university. (He went to university first.)

He did military service before he went to university. (He did military service first.)

2 present tense with future meaning

With before, we use a present tense if the meaning is future (see 580).

I'll telephone you before I come. (NOT ... before I will come.)

3 perfect tenses

In clauses with before, we often use present perfect and past perfect tenses to emphasise the idea of completion.

You can't go home before I've signed the letters. (= ... before the moment when I have completed the letters.)

He went out before I had finished my sentence. (= ... before the moment when I had completed my sentence.)

(Note that in sentences like the last, a past perfect tense can refer to a time later than the action of the main verb. This is unusual.)

4 before things that don't happen

We sometimes use before to talk about things that don't happen (because something stops them).

We'd better get out of here before your father catches us.

She left before I could ask for her phone number.

5 before ... ing

In a formal style, we often use the structure before ... ing.

Please put out all lights before leaving the office.

Before beginning the book, she spent five years on research.

For before as an adverb and preposition, see 96, 98.

98 before (preposition) and in front of

before: time
in front of place

Compare:

I must move my car before nine o'clock.

It's parked in front of the post office. (NOT ... before the post office.)

Before is normally used to refer to time. However, it can refer to place:

a) to talk about order in queues, lists, documents etc

Do you mind? I was before / in front of you!

Her name comes before mine in the alphabet.

We use 'a' before a consonant and 'the' before a vowel.

b) to mean 'in the presence of (somebody important)'

I came up before the magistrates for dangerous driving last week.

c in the expressions right before one's eyes, before one's very eyes.

For the difference between in front of and facing/opposite, see 402.

For before as an adverb and conjunction, see 96-97.

For by meaning 'at/on or before', see 117.

99 begin and start

1 meaning; formality

Begin and start can both be used with the same meaning.

I began/started teaching when I was 24.

If Sheila doesn't come soon, let's begin/start without her.

We generally prefer begin when we are using a more formal style. Compare:

We will begin the meeting with a message from the President.

Damn! It's starting to rain.

2 cases where begin is not possible

Start (but not begin) is used to mean:

a) 'start a journey'

I think we ought to start at six, while the roads are empty.

b) 'start working' (for machines)

The car won't start.

c) 'make something start'

How do you start the washing machine?

The President's wife fired the gun to start the race.

For infinitives and -ing forms after begin and start, see 299.10.

100 below, under, underneath, beneath

1 'lower than': below or under

The prepositions below and under can both mean 'lower than'.

Look in the cupboard below/under the sink.

2 not directly under: below

We prefer below when one thing is not directly under another.

The climbers stopped 300m below the top of the mountain.

A moment later the sun had disappeared below the horizon.

3 covered: under

We prefer under when something is covered or hidden by what is over it, and when things are touching.

I think the cat's under the bed.

What are you wearing under your sweater?

The whole village is under water. (NOT ... below water.)

4 measurements: below

Below is used in measurements of temperature and height, and in other cases where we think of a vertical scale.

The temperature is three degrees below zero.

Parts of Holland are below sea level.

The plane came down below the clouds.

She's well below average in intelligence.

5 'less than': under

We usually use under, not below, to mean 'less than' or 'younger than'.

There were under twenty people at the lecture.

You can't see this film if you're under 18.

6 underneath

Underneath is sometimes used as a preposition instead of under, but only for physical position. Compare:

There's a mouse under(neath) the piano.

He's still under 18. (NOT ... underneath 18.)

7 beneath

Beneath is used mostly in a rather literary style.

The ship sank slowly beneath the waves.

It is common before abstract nouns in some fixed expressions.

He acts as if I was beneath his notice. (= not worth considering)

Her behaviour is beneath contempt. (= really disgraceful)

8 adverbs

Below can be used as an adverb.

We looked over the cliff at the waves crashing on the rocks below.

Under can be used as an adverb particle (see 20) with some verbs.

A lot of businesses are going under because of the economic crisis.

In other cases we prefer underneath for adverbial use.

I can't take my sweater off - I haven't got anything on underneath. (NOT ... anything on untder.)

In a book or a paper, see below means 'look at something written later'.

The difference between above and over is similar to the difference between below and under. See 6 for details.

101 beside and besides

Beside is a preposition meaning 'at the side of', 'by', 'next to'.

Who's the big guy sitting beside Jane?

Besides can be used like as well as (see 78), when we add new information to what is already known.

Besides literature, we have to study history and philosophy.

Who was at the party besides Jack and the Bensons?

Besides can also be used as a discourse marker (see 157.11)meaning 'also', 'as well', 'in any case'. It is often used to add a stronger, more conclusive argument to what has gone before. In this case, besides usually goes at the beginning of a clause.

I don't like those shoes; besides, they're too expensive.

It's too late to go out now. Besides, it's starting to rain.

102 besides, except and apart from

These expressions are sometimes confused.

Besides usually adds: it is like saying with, or plus (+).

Besides the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (He plays three instruments.)

Except subtracts: it is like saying without, or minus (-).

I like all musical instruments except the violin.

Apart from can be used in both senses.

Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (= Besides the violin ... )

I like all musical instruments apart from the violin. ( ... except the violin.)

After no, nobody, nothing and similar negative words, the three expressions can all have the same meaning.

He has nothing besides / except / apart from his salary. (= He only has his salary.)

For the use of besides as an adverbial discourse marker, see 157.11.

For beside, see 101.

For except and except for, see 194.

103 bet

1 use

I bet (you) can be used in an informal style to mean 'I think it's probable that'. That is usually dropped.

I bet (you) she's not at home.

(More natural than I bet (you) that she's not at home.)

I'll bet ... is also possible.

I'll bet you she's not at home.

2 tenses

After I bet (you), we often use a present tense to refer to the future.

I bet (you) they don't come this evening. (OR I bet (you) they won't come ... )

I bet (you) the Conservatives (will) lose.

3 two objects

When bet is used to talk about real bets, it can be followed by two objects: the person with whom the bet is made, and the money or thing that is bet.

I bet you £5 it doesn't rain this week.

My father bet my mother dinner at the Ritz that she would marry him. He won, but she never bought him the dinner.

Bet is irregular (bet - bet - bet).

104 better

1 'recovered'

When better means 'recovered from an illness', it can be used with completely or quite (unlike other comparative adjectives).

Don't start work again until you're quite better.

2 correcting mistakes

We do not normally use better to correct mistakes.

She's gone to Hungary - or rather, Poland. (NOT ... or better, Poland.)

For the structure had better, see 230.

105 between and among

1 between two

We say that something is between two people, things, or groups of things.

She was standing between Alice and Mary.

a long valley between high mountains

Between is often used to talk about distances or intervals.

We need two metres between the windows.

I'll be at the office between nine and eleven.

Between is common before each.

There seems to be less and less time between each birthday.

2 between or among more than two

We usually say that somebody or something is between several clearly separate people or things. We prefer among when somebody or something is in a group, a crowd or a mass of people or things which we do not see separately. Compare:

- Our house is between the woods, the river and the village.

His house is hidden among the trees.

- I saw something between the wheels of the car.

Your letter is somewhere among all these papers.

Among is normal before a singular (uncountable) noun.

They found an envelope full of money among all the rubbish.

3 dividing and sharing; difference

We can talk about dividing or sharing things between or among more than two people or groups.

He divided all his money between/among his children and grandchildren.

We shared the work between/among the five of us.

We normally use between after difference.

There are enormous differences between languages.

What's the difference between 'between' and 'among'?

4 'one of' etc

Among can mean 'one of', 'some of' or 'included in'.

Among the first to arrive was the ambassador.

He has a number of criminals among his friends.

106 big, large and great

1 concrete nouns: usually big or large

With concrete nouns - the names of things you can see, touch etc - we mostly use big and large. Big is most common in an informal style.

Get your big feet off my flowers.

She is a small woman, but she has very large feet.

It was a large house, situated near the river.

2 great with concrete nouns

Great is not normally used simply to talk about physical size. In an informal style, it is often used with concrete nouns to mean 'wonderful'.

I've just got a great new flat.

And it can also be used with meanings like 'large and impressive'.

Great clouds of smoke rose above the burning cathedral.

Another meaning is 'famous' or 'important'.

Do you think Napoleon was really a great man?

3 abstract nouns: usually great

Great is common with abstract nouns - the names of things you cannot see, touch etc.

I have great respect for her ideas. (NOT big/large respect)

His behaviour caused great annoyance. (NOT big/large annoyance)

You are making a great mistake.

Her work showed a great improvement last year.

Big can be used with countable abstract nouns in an informal style.

You're making a big mistake.

Big bargains for weekend shoppers!

Large is used with countable abstract nouns referring to quantities, amounts and proportions.

We're thinking of giving your firm a very large order.

There was a large error in the accounts.

She spent large sums on entertaining.

He wrote a large part of the book while he was in hospital.

Big and large are not generally used with uncountable nouns - but note the fixed expressions big business, big trouble.

4 large and wide

Large is a 'false friend' for speakers of some languages. It does not mean 'wide'.

The river is 100 metres wide. (NOT ... 100 metres large.)

For wide and broad, see 115.

107 [a] bit

1 use

A bit is often used as an adverb with the same meaning as a little (see 329).

She's a bit old to play with dolls, isn't she?

Can you drive a bit slower? Wait a bit.

Note that when a bit and a little are used with non-comparative adjectives, the

meaning is usually negative or critical.

a bit tired   a bit expensive   a little (too) old

(BUT NOT a bit kind, a little interesting)

2 a bit of a

A bit of a can be used before some nouns in an informal style. The meaning is similar to rather a (see 490).

He's a bit of a fool, if you ask me.   I've got a bit of a problem.

3 not a bit

The informal expression not a bit means 'not at all'.

I'm not a bit tired.   Do you mind if I put some music on? ~ Not a bit.

For a bit with comparative adjectives and adverbs, see 140.

108 born and borne

1 be born

To talk about coming into the world at birth, we use the passive expression to be born.

Hundreds of children are born deaf every year.

To give a place or date of birth, we use the simple past: was/were born.

I was born in 1936. (NOT I am born in 1936.)

My parents were born in Scotland.

2 the verb bear

The verb bear (bore, borne) is used to talk about accepting or tolerating difficult experiences. It is most common in the expression can't bear (= hate, can't stand).

I can't bear her voice.

In a very formal style, bear can be used with other meanings, including 'give birth to' and 'carry'.

She bore six children in seven years. (More normal: She had six children ... )

The king's body was borne away to the cathedral.

109 borrow and lend

Borrowing is taking (for a time).

Can I borrow your bicycle? (NOT Can I lend your bicycle?)

You borrow something from somebody.

I borrowed a pound from my brother. (NOT I borrowed my brother a pound.)

Lending (AmE also loaning) is giving (for a time). You lend something to somebody, or lend somebody something.

I lent my coat to Steve, and I never saw it again.

Lend me your comb for a minute, will you? (NOT Borrow me your... )

For lend in passive structures, see 415.

110 both

1 meaning

Both means 'each of two'.

Both my parents were born in Scotland.

We do not normally use both when the meaning is not 'each'.

My two brothers carried the piano upstairs. (More natural than Both my brothers carried the piano upstairs - they didn't each carry it separately.)

2 both and both of

Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, my, these), both and both of are both possible.

She's eaten both (of) the chops. Both (of) these oranges are bad.

He lost both (of) his parents when he was a child.

We often drop the or a possessive after both; of is not used in this case.

She's eaten both chops. (NOT ... both of chops)

He lost both parents when he was a child.

3 the not used before both

Note that we do not put the before both.

both (the) children (NOT the both children)

4 personal pronouns: both of

With personal pronouns, we use both of + us/you/them. Both of us/you/ them can be a subject or object.

Both of them can come tomorrow.

She's invited both of us. Mary sends both of you her love.

We can put both after pronouns used as objects.

She's invited us both. Mary sends you both her love.

But this structure is not used in complements (after be) or in short answers.

Who broke the window - Sarah or Alice? ~ It was both of them. (NOT ... them both.)

Who did she invite? ~Both of us. (NOT Us both.)

5 both with a verb

When both refers to the subject of a clause, it can go with the verb, in 'midposition' (for details of word order, see 24).

We can both swim. Those oranges were both bad.

The children have both gone to bed. My sisters both work in education.

Note that these meanings can also be expressed by using both (of) with a subject (see above).

Both of us can swim. Both (of) the children have gone to bed.

6 negative structures

Instead of both ... not, we normally use neither (see 372).

Neither of them is here. (NOT Both of them are not here.)

111 both ... and

We often balance this structure, so that the same kind of words or expressions follow both and and.

She's both pretty and clever. (adjectives)

I spoke to both the Director and her secretary. (nouns)

She both dances and sings. (verbs)

However, unbalanced sentences with both ... and are common. Some people prefer to avoid them.

She both dances and she sings. (both + verb; and + clause)

I both play the piano and the violin.

Both cannot begin a complete clause in this structure.

You can both borrow the flat and (you can) use our car. (BUT NOT Both you can borrow the flat anti you can use the car.)

See also either ... or (175), neither ... nor (373) and not only. . but also (383).

112 bring and take

1 speaker's/hearer's position

We use bring for movements to the place where the speaker or hearer is, but we use take for movements to other places. Compare:

- This is a nice restaurant. Thanks for bringing me here. (NOT ... thanks for taking me here.)

Let's have another drink, and then I'll take you home. (NOT ... and then I'll bring you home.)

- (on the phone) Can we come over on Sunday? We'll bring a picnic.

Let's go and see Aunt May on Sunday. We can take a picnic.

2 speaker's/hearer's past or future position

We can also use bring for a movement to a place where the speaker or hearer already was or will be. Compare:

- Where's that report? ~ I brought it to you when you were in Mr Alien's office. Don't you remember?

I took the papers to John's office.

- I'll arrive at the hotel at six o'clock. Can you bring the car at six-thirty?

Can you take the car to the garage tomorrow? I won't have time. (NOT Can you bring the car to the garage tomorrow? ... )

3 joining a movement

Bring (with) can be used to talk about joining a movement of the speaker's/hearer's, even if take is used for the movement itself.

I'm taking the kids to the cinema tonight. Would you like to come with us and bring Susie?

4 somebody else's position

Sometimes when we are talking about somebody else (not the speaker or hearer), that person can become the centre of our attention. In that case, we use bring for movements to the place where he/she is (or was or will be). This often happens in stories.

He heard nothing for months. Then one day his brother brought him a letter.

5 American English

Americans often use bring where British English has take.

Let's go and see Aunt May on Sunday. We can bring a picnic.

The difference between come and go is similar. See 134.

For other uses of take, see 576.

113 bring up and educate

Bring up and the noun upbringing are mostly used for the moral and social training that children receive at home. Educate and education are used for the intellectual and cultural training that people get at school and university.

Lucy was brought up by her aunt and educated at the local school.

Their kids are very badly brought up - always screaming and fighting. (NOT Their kids are very badly educated ... )

Which is better: a good upbringing and a bad education, or the opposite?

114 Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England

(Great) Britain is normally used to mean the island which includes England, Scotland and Wales; British is used for the people of these three countries. Great Britain and Northern Ireland together are called the United Kingdom; some people also use Britain in this wider sense.

The British Isles is a geographical, not a political term. It is the name for England, Scotland, Wales, the whole of Ireland (which includes both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, also called 'Eire'), and the smaller islands round about.

Note that England is only one part of Britain. Scotland and Wales are not in England, and Scottish and Welsh people do not like to be called 'English'.

A very informal word for a British person is Brit. Briton is used mainly in news reports and newspaper headlines (e.g. THREE BRITONS DIE IN AIR CRASH), and to refer to the ancient inhabitants of Britain.

115 broad and wide

1 physical distance

To talk about the physical distance from one side of something to the other, we more often use wide.

We live in a very wide street. The car's too wide for the garage.

Broad can also be used in this physical sense, especially in more formal descriptions.

Across the broad valley, the mountains rose blue and mysterious.

She wore a simple green dress with a broad black belt.

Note also: broad shoulders; a broad back; wide eyes; a wide mouth.

Wide is used in expressions of measurement: note the word order.

The river is about half a mile wide. (NOT ... wide half a mile.)

2 abstract meanings

Both words can express more abstract meanings. Common expressions:

broad agreement (= agreement on most important points)

broad-minded (= tolerant)   broad daylight (= full, bright daylight)

a wide variety/range (of opinions etc)

For other common expressions with broad and wide, see a good dictionary.

116 but meaning 'except'

1 use

We use but to mean 'except' after all, none, every, any, no (and everything, everybody, nothing, nobody, anywhere etc).

He eats nothing but hamburgers. Everybody's here but George.

I've finished all the jobs but one.

Note the expressions next but one, last but two etc (mainly BrE).

Jackie lives next door but one. (= two houses from me)

I was last but two in the race yesterday.

But for expresses the idea 'if something had not existed/happened'.

I would have been in real trouble but for your help.

But for the storm, I would have been home before eight.

Note also the structure who/what should ... but (used to talk about surprising appearances, meetings etc).

I walked out of the station, and who should I see but old Beryl?

I looked under the bed, and what should I find but the keys I lost last week?

2 pronouns after but

After but, we usually use object pronouns (me, him etc). Subject pronouns (I, he etc) are possible in a more formal style before a verb.

Nobody but her would do a thing like that.

(More formal: Nobody but she ... )

3 verbs after but

The verb form after but usually depends on what came before. Infinitives are normally without to.

She's not interested in anything but skiing. (interested in ... skiing)

That child does nothing but watch TV. (does ... watch)

Cannot (help) but + infinitive without to is sometimes used with the meaning of 'can't help .. .ing' (see 126). Cannot but ... is very formal; cannot help but ... is especially common in American English.

One cannot (help) but admire his courage. (= One has to admire ... )

I can't help but wonder what's going to happen to us all.

Infinitives with to are used after no alternative/ choice/ option but.

The train was cancelled, so I had no alternative but to take a taxi.

4 but meaning 'only'

In older English, but was used to mean 'only', but this is now very unusual.

She is but a child.

Note: but is usually pronounced /bət/, not /bʌt/ (see 616).

For except, see 194.

For but as a conj unction and ellipsis after but, see 178.

117 by: time

1 not later than

By can mean 'not later than'.

I'll be home by five o'clock. (= at or before five)

Can I borrow your car? ~Yes, but I must have it back by tonight. (= tonight or before)

By can also suggest the idea of 'progress up to a particular time'.

By the end of the meal, everybody was drunk.

Before a verb, we use by the time (that).

I'll be in bed by the time you get home.

By the time that the guards realised what was happening, the gang were already inside the bank.

For the difference between by and until, see 602.6.

2 other meanings

By can also be used to talk about time in the rather literary expressions by day and by night (= during the day/night).

He worked by night and slept by day.

Note also day by day, hour by hour etc.

The situation is getting more serious day by day. (= ... each day.)

And one can pay by the hour, by the day etc.

In this job we're paid by the hour.

You can hire a bicycle by the day or by the week.

118 by and near

By means 'just at the side of'; something that is by you may be closer than something that is near you. Compare:

We live near the sea. (perhaps five kilometres away)

We live by the sea. (We can see it.)

119 by (method, agent) and with (tools etc)

1 the difference

By and with can both be used to say how somebody does something, but there is an important difference.

We use by to talk about an action - what we do to get a result. We use with to talk about a tool or other object - what we use to get a result. Compare:

- I killed the spider by hitting it. (Note the -ing form after by.)

I killed the spider with a shoe. (NOT ... by a shoe.)

- I got where I am by hard work. ~No you didn't. You got there with your wife's money.

Without is the opposite of both by and with in these cases. Compare:

- I got her to listen by shouting.

It's difficult to get her to listen without shouting.

- We'll have to get it out with a screwdriver.

We can't get it out without a screwdriver.

By is also used to refer to means of transport (by bus, by train etc). See 70.1.

2 passive clauses

In passive clauses, by introduces the agent - the person or thing that does the action (see 413).

I was interviewed by three directors.

My car was damaged by a falling branch.

We generally prefer with to refer to a tool or instrument used by somebody. Compare:

He was killed by a heavy stone. (This could mean 'A stone fell and killed him'.)

He was killed with a heavy stone. (This means 'Somebody used a stone to kill him'.)

120 call

Call (with no object) can mean both 'telephone' and 'visit'. This sometimes causes confusion.

Alice called this morning. ~ You mean she came round or she phoned?

121 can and could (1): introduction

1 grammar

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs (see 353-354).

a) There is no -s in the third person singular.

She can swim very well. (NOT She cans ... )

b) Questions and negatives are made without do.

Can you swim? (NOT Do you can swim?)

I couldn't understand her. (NOT I didn't could ... )

c) After can and could, we use the infinitive of other verbs, without to.

I can speak a little Arabic. (NOT I can to speak ... )

Do you think she can still be working? It's very late.

d) Can and could have no infinitives or participles (to can, canning, I have could do not exist). When necessary, we use other words, for example forms of be able (see 3) or be allowed (see 42).

I'd like to be able to stay here. (NOT ... to can stay... )

You'll be able to walk soon. (NOT You'll can ... )

I've always been able to play games well. (NOT I've always could ... )

She's always been allowed to do what she liked.

e) Could is sometimes used as the past of can.

When I was younger I could play tennis very well.

However, it can also be used as a less definite or conditional form of can, referring to the present or future (see 122.6, 124.1,4-6).

Could I ask you something? (More polite than Can I ... ?)

What shall we do this evening? ~We could go and see a film.

I could get a better job if I spoke French. (= I would be able to ... )

f) Certain past ideas can be expressed by can or could followed by a perfect infinitive (have + past participle). For details, see 122.7, 123.5 and 124.7.

I don't know where she can have gone.

That was dangerous - he could have killed somebody.

g) Can has two pronunciations: a strong form /kæn/ and a weak form /kən/.

Could has a strong form /kʊd/ and a weak form /kəd/. The weak pronunciation is used in most cases. For more details of strong and weak pronunciations, see 616.

h) Contracted negative forms (see 143) are can't (pronounced /kɑ:nt/ in standard British English and /kænt/ in standard American English) and couldn't /'kʊdnt/. Cannot is usually written as one word in British English.

2 meanings

Can and could are both used to talk about ability, to ask for and give permission. and to make requests and offers.

Can you speak French? (ability)

You can stop work early today. (permission)

Could I have some more tea? (request)

Can I help you? (offer)

Could is also used to talk about the chances that something will happen, or is happening. Can is not used in this way.

It could rain this afternoon. (NOT It can rain this afternoon.)

Can't is not only used to talk about ability or permission; it can also express negative certainty (see 359.2).

It can't be true. (= It is not possible that it is true.)

With see, hear and some other verbs, can is used to give a kind of present progressive meaning.

I can hear the sea. (NOT I am hearing the sea.)

May and might are often used in similar ways to can and could. For the main differences, see 345.

122 can and could (2): ability

1 knowledge, skill, strength etc: I can read Italian

We use can to say what people and things are able (or unable) to do because of their knowledge, skill, strength, nature, design etc.

I can read Italian, but I can't speak it. These roses can grow anywhere.

Dogs can't climb trees. Can gases freeze?

Henry can lift 100 kilos. My car can do 180 kph.

Be able to (see 3) is used with similar meanings, especially when we are talking about people's ability.

Henry is able to lift 100 kilos.

2 common or typical

We often use can to say what is common or typical.

Scotland can be very warm in September.

Ann can really get on your nerves sometimes.

3 possible in the situation: We can go to Paris

We also use can to say what we are able (or unable) to do because of the circumstances that we are in - what is possible in the situation.

We can go to Paris this weekend, because I don't have to work.

I can't come out this evening: I have to see my brother.

There are three possibilities: we can go to the police, we can talk to a lawyer, or we can forget all about it.

What shall we do? ~ We can try asking Lucy for help.

Anybody who wants to can join the club.

4 past: She could read when she was four

We use could to talk about the past.

She could read when she was four.

My grandmother could sing like an angel.

My last car could do 200 kph.

In those days everybody could find a job.

It could be quite frightening if you were alone in our big old house.

Was able to is also possible, especially to talk about people's ability.

She was able to read when she was four.

5 past: could is not always possible

We use could for 'general ability' - for example to say that somebody could do something at any time, whenever he/she wanted.

When I was younger, I could run 10 km in under 40 minutes.

We do not normally use could to say that somebody did something on one occasion. Instead, we use other expressions.

I managed to run 10 km yesterday in under an hour. (NOT I could run 10 km yesterday ... )

How many eggs were you able to get? (NOT ... could you get?)

After six hours' climbing, we succeeded in getting to the top of the mountain. (NOT ... we could get to the top ... )

I found a really nice dress in the sale. (NOT I could find ... )

However, we use couldn't to say that something did not happen on one occasion.

I managed to find the street, but I couldn't find her house.

6 other uses of could

Could is not only past: we also use it as a 'softer', less definite form of can.

What shall we do tomorrow? ~ Well, we could go fishing.

When you're in Spain, you could go and see Alex.

Could can mean 'would be able to'.

You could get a better job if you spoke a foreign language.

Could is used in past indirect speech, when can was used in direct speech.

Can you help me?~ What did you say?~ I asked if you could help me.

7 could have ...

We use a special structure to talk about unrealised past ability or opportunities - to say that somebody was able to do something, but did not try to do it; or that something was possible, but did not happen.

could have + past participle

I could have married anybody I wanted to.

I was so angry I could have killed her!

Why did you jump out of the window? You could have hurt yourself

I could have won the race if I hadn't fallen.

This structure can be used to criticise people for not doing things.

You could have helped me - why did you just sit and watch?

Negative sentences suggest that somebody would not have been able to do something even if they had wanted or tried to.

I couldn't have won, so I didn't go in for the race.

I couldn't have enjoyed myself more - it was a perfect day.

The structure is sometimes used to talk about past events which are not certain to have happened (like may/might have - see 339.7).

Who sent those flowers? ~ I'm not sure. It could have been your mother.

8 chances: Will it happen? / Is it happening? Can not used

We do not use can to talk about the chances (probability) that something will actually happen, or is actually happening. Instead, we use may (see 339).

We may go camping this summer. (NOT We can go ... )

There may be a strike next week. (NOT There can be ... )

Where's Sarah? ~ She may be with Joe. (NOT She can be ... )

Some of these desserts may contain alcohol. (NOT ... can contain ... )

However, could is possible in this sense.

It could rain later this evening, perhaps. (BUT NOT It can rain later ... )

I could possibly have a new job soon. (BUT NOT I can possibly have ... )

For a comparison between can, could, may and might, see 345.

For can't used to express certainty (e.g. It can't be true), see 359.2.

123 can and could (3): ability (advanced points)

1 future: can or will be able

We use can to talk about future actions which we will be able to do because of present ability, present circumstances, present decisions etc.

She can win the race tomorrow if she really tries.

I've bought the tent, so we can go camping next weekend if we want to.

I haven't got time today, but I can see you tomorrow.

Can you come to a party on Saturday?

In other cases we prefer other structures, for example will be able to.

I'll be able to speak French at the end of this course. (NOT I can speak French ... )

One day people will be able to go to the moon on holiday. (OR it will be possible to go ... )

2 could in the past

Could is not normally used to say that somebody did something on one occasion in the past (see 122.5).

I managed to buy a really nice coat yesterday. (NOT I could buy a really nice coat yesterday.)

However, could can refer to one occasion with certain verbs: see, hear, taste, feel, smell, understand, remember and guess (see 125),

I could smell something burning. I could understand everything she said.

And we can use could to talk about one occasion with words like hardly or only, that have a negative sense.

She could hardly believe her eyes. I could only get six eggs.

Could can also sometimes refer to one occasion in subordinate clauses.

I'm so glad that you could come.

3 languages and instruments: She speaks Greek

We often leave out can when we are talking about the ability to speak languages or to play instruments.

She speaks Greek. / She can speak Greek.

Do/Can you play the piano?

4 can/could always

Can/could always can mean 'can/could ... if there is nothing better'.

I don't know what to get Mark for his birthday. ~ Well, you can always give him a book token.

What are we going to eat?~ We could always warm up that soup.

5 could have ... for present situations

Could have + past participle can refer to present situations which were possible but have not been realised.

He could have been Prime Minister now if he hadn't decided to leave politics.

We could have spent today at the seaside, but we thought it was going to rain, so we decided not to.

124 can and could (4): interpersonal uses (permission, requests etc)

1 asking for and giving permission: Can I ... ?

We use can to ask for and give permission.

Can I ask you something? ~ Yes, of course you can.

You can go now if you want to.

Can't is used to refuse permission (often with other words to soften the refusal.)

Can I have some more cake?~ No, I'm afraid you can't.

We also use could to ask for permission; it is more polite or formal than can.

We do not use could to give or refuse permission (it suggests respect, so is more natural in asking for permission than in giving it.)

Could I ask you something? ~ Yes, of course you can. (NOT ... of course you could.)

May and might are also used to ask and give permission (see 340). They are more formal than can/ could. Some people consider them more 'correct', but in fact can and could are normally preferred in informal educated usage.

2 talking about permission: Can everybody park here?

Can and could are also used to talk about permission that has already been given or refused, and about things that are (not) allowed by rules and laws. (Note that may is not normally used to talk about rules and laws - see 340.3.)

She said I could come as often as I liked.

Can everybody park here? (NOT May everybody park here?)

3 past: could is not always possible

In talking about the past, we use could to say that somebody had permission to do something at any time ('general permission'), but we do not use could to talk about permission for one particular action in the past. Compare:

When I was a child, I could watch TV whenever I wanted to.

Yesterday evening, Peter was allowed to watch TV for an hour. (NOT ... Peter could watch TV for an hour.)

But could not can be used to talk about one particular action.

Peter couldn't watch TV yesterday because he was naughty.

(The difference between could and was/were allowed is similar to the difference between could and was/were able - see 122.5.)

4 could = 'would be allowed'

Could has a conditional use (= would be allowed).

He could borrow my car if he asked.

Could have + past participle means 'would have been allowed'.

I could have kissed her if I'd wanted to.

5 offers

We often use can when we offer to do things for people.

Can I carry your bag? ( = Would you like me to ... ) ~ Oh, thank you.

I can baby-sit for you this evening if you like. ~ No, it's all right, thanks.

Could is possible if we want an offer to sound less definite.

I could mend your bicycle for you, if that would help.

6 requests, orders and suggestions

We can use can and could to ask or tell people to do things. Could is more polite, more formal or less definite, and is often used for making suggestions.

Can you put the children to bed?

Could you lend me five pounds until tomorrow?

Do you think you could help me for a few minutes?

When you've finished the washing-up you can clean the kitchen. Then you could iron the clothes, if you like.

If you haven't got anything to do you could sort out your photos.

7 criticisms

Could can be used to criticise people for not doing things.

You could ask before you borrow my car.

Could have + past participle is used for criticisms about the past.

You could have told me you were getting married.

For the use of might in similar cases, see 344.

8 indirect speech

Could is used in past indirect speech, when can was used in direct speech.

Can you give me a hand? ~ What? ~ I asked if you could give me a hand.

125 can and could (5): with see, hear, etc

1 see, hear, feel, smell, taste

When these verbs refer to perception (receiving information through the eyes, ears etc), we do not normally use progressive forms. To talk about seeing, hearing etc at a particular moment, we often use can see, can hear etc (especially in British English).

I can see Susan coming. (NOT I'm seeing ... )

Can you hear somebody coming up the stairs?

What did you put in the stew? I can taste something funny.

Suddenly she realised she could smell something burning.

In American English, I see/hear etc are common in this sense.

2 guess, tell

Can and could are often used with guess and with tell (meaning see, know).

Can/could are not normally used with know in the sense of 'find out' (see 313.5).

I could guess what she wanted.

You can tell he's Irish from his accent. (NOT You can know ... )

3 understand, follow, remember

Can/could is often used with these verbs too. It does not always add very much to the meaning.

I can't/don't understand what she's talking about.

Do/Can you follow what he's saying?

I (can) remember your grandfather.

126 can't help

If you say that you cannot/can't help doing something, you mean that you can't stop yourself, even if you don't want to do it.

She's a selfish woman, but somehow you can't help liking her.

Excuse me - I couldn't help overhearing what you said.

Sorry I broke the cup ~ I couldn't help it.

Can't help can be followed by but + infinitive without to (see 116.3), with the same meaning as can't help ... ing. This is common in American English.

I can't help but wonder what I should do next.

127 care: take care (of), care (about) and care for

1 take care of

Take care of normally means 'look after' or 'take responsibility for'.

Nurses take care of people in hospital.

It's no good giving Peter a rabbit: he's too young to take care of it properly.

Ms Savage takes care of marketing, and I'm responsible for production.

Take care (without a preposition) means 'be careful'. Some people use it as a formula when saying goodbye.

Take care when you're crossing the road, children.

Bye, Ruth. ~ Bye, Mike. Take care.

2 care (about)

Care (about) is used to say whether you feel something is important to you.

This is very common in negative sentences. About is used before an object, but is usually left out before a conjunction.

Most people care about other people's opinions. (NOT ... take care of / care for other people's opinions)

I don't care whether it rains - I'm happy.

I'll never speak to you again. ~ I don't care.

Your mother's upset with you. ~ I couldn't care less. (= I don't care at all.)

3 care for

Care for can be used to mean 'look after'.

He spent years caring for his sick mother.

Another meaning is 'like' or 'be fond of', but this is not very common in modern English.

I don't much care for strawberries.

128 changes: become, get, go, grow, etc

Become, get, go, come, grow and turn can all be used with similar meanings to talk about changes. The differences between them are complicated - they depend partly on grammar, partly on meaning and partly on fixed usage.

1 become dark, become a pilot etc

Become can be used before adjectives and noun phrases.

It was becoming very dark.

What do you have to do to become a pilot?

Become is not usually used to talk about single deliberate actions.

Please get ready now. (NOT Please become ready now.)

2 get dark, younger etc

Get (informal) is very common before adjectives (without nouns).

It was getting very dark. (informal)

You get younger every day. (informal)

Get can also be used before past participles like lost, broken, dressed, married.

They got married in 1986, and got divorced two years later.

We generally use go, not get, to talk about changes of colour and some changes for the worse (like go mad) - see paragraph 4 below.

Get is not normally used before nouns to talk about changes.

I became a grandfather last week. (NOT I got a grandfather ... )

For get used to, see 605.

3 get + infinitive

We can sometimes use get with an infinitive to talk about a gradual change.

After a few weeks I got to like the job better.

She's nice when you get to know her.

4 go red, go mad etc

Go can be used before adjectives to talk about change, especially in an informal style. This is common in two cases.

a) colours

Go (and not get) is used to talk about changes of colour.

Leaves go brown in autumn. (NOT Leaves get brown ... )

She went white with anger.

Suddenly everything went black and I lost consciousness.

Other examples: go blue with cold / red with embarrassment / green with envy.

Turn can also be used in these cases (see below), and so can grow when the change is gradual. Go is more informal than turn and grow.

b) changes for the worse

Go (not usually get) is used before adjectives in some expressions that refer to changes for the worse. People go mad (BrE), crazy, deaf, blind, grey or bald; horses go lame; machines go wrong; iron goes rusty; meat, fish or vegetables go bad; cheese goes mouldy; milk goes off or sour; bread goes stale; beer, lemonade, musical instruments and car tyres go flat.

He went bald in his twenties. The car keeps going wrong.

Note that we use get, not go, with old, tired and ill.

5 come true etc

Come is used in a few fixed expressions to talk about things finishing up all right. The most common are come true and come right.

I'll make all your dreams come true.

Trust me - it will all come right in the end.

Come + infinitive can be used to talk about changes in mental state or attitude.

I slowly came to realise that she knew what she was doing.

You will come to regret your decision.

6 grow old etc

Grow is used before adjectives especially to talk about slow and gradual changes. It is more formal than get or go, and a little old-fashioned or literary.

Without noticing it he grew old.

When they grew rich they began to drop their old friends.

As the weather grows colder, my thoughts turn to holidays in the sun.

Grow + infinitive can be used (like come + infinitive) to talk about changes in attitude, especially if these are gradual.

He grew to accept his stepmother, but he never grew to love her.

7 turn red etc

Turn is used mostly for visible or striking changes of state. It is common before colour words (and is not so informal as go).

She turned bright red and ran out of the room.

He turns nasty after he's had a couple of drinks.

We can use turn before numbers to talk about important changes of age.

I turned fifty last week. It's all downhill from now on.

Turn into is used before nouns.

He's a lovely man, but when he gets jealous he turns into a monster.

A girl has to kiss a lot of frogs before one of them turns into a prince.

Turn to and turn into can both be used before the names of materials.

Everything that King Midas touched turned (in)to gold.

They stood there as if they had been turned (in)to stone.

To talk about a change of occupation, religion, politics etc, we sometimes use turn with a noun (with no preposition or article) or an adjective.

He worked in a bank for thirty years before turning painter.

Towards the end of the war he turned traitor.

At the end of her life she turned Catholic.

Turn (in)to can also be used to talk about changing one thing into another.

In the Greek legend, Circe turned men into pigs.

8 fall ill etc

Fall is used to mean 'become' in fall ill, fall asleep and fall in love.

9 verbs related to adjectives: thicken, brighten etc

A number of verbs which are related to adjectives have meanings like 'get more ...' or 'make more ...'. Many of them end in -en. Examples:

The fog thickened. They're widening the road here.

The weather's beginning to brighten up. His eyes narrowed.

Could you shorten the sleeves on this jacket?

10 no change: stay, keep, remain

To talk about things not changing, we can use stay, keep or remain before adjectives. Remain is more formal.

How do you manage to stay young and fit? Keep calm.

I hope you will always remain so charming.

Stay and remain are also sometimes used before noun phrases.

Promise me you will always stay/remain my little boy.

Keep can be used before -ing forms.

Keep smiling whatever happens.

For other uses of the words discussed in this section, see a good dictionary.

129 city and town

Most people simply use city to talk about large and important towns - examples in the UK are Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool and London.

City can be used in a more exact way to talk about a town that has been given a special status by the king or queen (in Britain) or by the state (in some other English-speaking countries).

130 cleft sentences (1): What I need is a holiday

We can emphasise particular words and expressions by putting everything into a kind of relative clause except the words we want to emphasise: this makes them stand out. These structures are called 'cleft sentences' by grammarians (cleft means 'divided'). They are useful in writing (because we cannot use intonation for emphasis in written language), but they are also common in speech.

1 Mary is the person who ...; What I need is ...

The words to be emphasised are joined to the relative clause by is/was and an expression like the person who, or what (= the thing that).

We can put the words to be emphasised first or last in the sentence. Compare:

- MARY kept a pig in the garden shed.

Mary was the person who kept a pig in the garden shed.

The person who kept a pig in the garden shed was Mary.

- Mary kept A PIG in the garden shed.

A pig was what Mary kept in the garden shed.

What Mary kept in the garden shed was a pig.

- Phil is THE SECRETARY.

The secretary is what Phil is.

What Phil is is the secretary.

Instead of the person or what, we can use less general expressions.

You're the woman (that) I'll always love best.

Casablanca is a film (that) I watch again and again.

A what-clause is normally considered to be singular; if it begins a cleft sentence it is followed by is/was. But a plural verb is sometimes possible before a plural noun in an informal style.

What we want is/are some of those cakes.

For more information about what-clauses, see 497.

2 the place where ...; the day when ...; the reason why ...

We can use these expressions to emphasise a place, time or reason.

- Mary kept a pig IN THE GARDEN SHED.

The garden shed was the place where Mary kept a pig.

The place where Mary kept a pig was the garden shed.

- Jake went to London ON TUESDAY to see Colin.

Tuesday was the day when/that Jake went to London to see Colin.

The day when Jake went to London to see Colin was Tuesday.

- Jake went to London on Tuesday TO SEE COLIN.

To see Colin was the reason why Jake went to London on Tuesday.

The reason why Jake went to London on Tuesday was to see Colin.

The place, the day or the reason can be dropped in an informal style, especially in the middle of a sentence.

Spain's where we're going this year.

Why I'm here is to talk about my plans. (More formal: The reason why I'm here is ... )

3 emphasising verbs: What he did was ...

When we want to emphasise a verb (or an expression beginning with a verb), we have to use a more complicated structure with what ... do. Infinitives with and without to are possible.

- He SCREAMED.

What he did was (to) scream.

- She WRITES SCIENCE FICTION.

What she does is (to) write science fiction.

Instead of an infinitive, we often use subject + verb in an informal style.

What she does is, she writes science fiction.

What I'll do is, I'll phone John and ask his advice.

4 emphasising a whole sentence

A whole sentence can be given extra emphasis by using a cleft structure with what and the verb happen. Compare:

The car broke down.

What happened was (that) the car broke down.

5 other structures

All (that), and expressions with thing, can be used in cleft sentences.

All I want is a home somewhere. All you need is love.

All (that) I did was (to) touch the window, and it broke.

The only thing I remember is a terrible pain in my head.

The first thing was to make some coffee.

My first journey abroad is something I shall never forget.

Time expressions can be emphasised with It was not until ... and It was only when ....

It was not until I met you that I knew real happiness.

It was only when I read her letter that I realised what was happening.

At the beginning of a cleft sentence, this and that often replace emphasised here and there. Compare:

- You pay here.

This is where you pay. (OR Here is where you pay.)

- We live there.

That's where we live. (OR There's where we live.)

For more about question-word clauses, see 485.

For more general information about sentence structure and the arrangement of information in sentences, see 512.

131 cleft sentences (2): it was my secretary who

1 preparatory it

We can use preparatory it (see 446) in cleft sentences. The words to be emphasised are usually joined to the relative clause by that. Compare:

My secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding yesterday.

It was my secretary that sent the bill to Mr Harding yesterday. (not somebody else)

It was the bill that my secretary sent to Mr Harding yesterday. (not something else)

It was Mr Harding that my secretary sent the bill to yesterday. (not to somebody else)

It was yesterday that my secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding. (not another day)

Negative structures are also possible.

It wasn't my husband that sent the bill ...

Who is possible instead of that when a personal subject is emphasised.

It was my secretary who sent ...

When a plural subject is emphasised, the verb is plural.

It was the students that were angry ... (NOT ... that was angry ... )

The verb cannot be emphasised with this structure: we cannot say

It was sent that my secretary the bill ....

2 It is I who ... ; It is me that ...

When an emphasised subject is a pronoun, there are two possibilities. Compare:

- It is I who am responsible. (formal)

It's me that's/who's responsible. (informal)

- It is you who are in the wrong. (formal)

It's you that's in the wrong. (informal)

To avoid being either too formal or too informal in this case, we could say, for example,

I'm the person / the one who's responsible.

132 close and shut

1 use

Close /kləʊz/ and shut can often be used with the same meaning.

Open your mouth and close/shut your eyes.

I can't close/shut the window. Can you help me?

The shop closes/shuts at five o'clock.

You can shut, but not close, somebody/something in or out of a place.

I shut the letters in my desk drawer and locked it. (NOT I closed the letters ...)

She shut him out of the house.

2 past participles

The past participles closed and shut can be used as adjectives.

The post office is closed/shut on Saturday afternoon.

Shut is not usually used before a noun.

a closed door (NOT a shut door)   closed eyes (NOT shut eyes)

3 cases where close is preferred

We prefer close for slow movements (like flowers closing at night), and close is more common in a formal style.

As we watched, he closed his eyes for the last time.

Compare:

Close your mouth, please. (dentist to patient)

Shut your mouth! (a rude way of saying 'Be quiet!')

We close roads, railways etc (channels of communication). And we close (= end) letters, bank accounts, meetings etc.

133 cloth and clothes

Cloth (pronounced /klɒθ/) is material made from wool, cotton etc, used for making clothes, curtains, soft furnishings and so on. (In informal English, it is more common to say material or fabric.)

His suits were made of the most expensive cloth.

A cloth is a piece of material used for cleaning, covering things etc.

Could you pass me a cloth? I've spilt some milk on the floor.

Clothes (pronounced /kləʊðz/) are things you wear: skirt, trousers etc. Clothes has no singular; instead of a clothe, we say something to wear or an article / a piece of clothing.

I must buy some new clothes; I haven't got anything to wear.

134 come and go

1 speaker's/hearer's position

We use come for movements to the place where the speaker or hearer is.

Maria, would you come here, please? ~ I'm coming. (NOT ... I'm going.)

When did you come to live here?

(on the phone): Can I come and see you?

We use go for movements to other places.

I want to go and live in Greece. Let's go and see Peter and Diane.

In 1577, he went to study in Rome.

2 speaker's/hearer's past or future position

We can use come for a movement to a place where the speaker or hearer already was or will be at the time of the movement. Compare:

What time did I come to see you in the office yesterday?

I went to John's office yesterday, but he wasn't in.

- Will you come and visit me in hospital when I have my operation?

He's going into hospital next week.

- Susan can't come to your birthday party.

She's going to see her mother.

3 joining a movement

Come (with) can be used to talk about joining a movement of the speaker's/hearer's, even if go is used for the movement itself.

We're going to the cinema tonight. Would you like to come with us?

4 somebody else's position

Sometimes when we are talking about somebody else (not the speaker or hearer), that person can become the centre of our attention. In that case, we use come for movements to the place where he/she is (or was or will be). This often happens in stories.

He waited till four o'clock, but she didn't come.

5 come to; come from

Come to can mean arrive at.

Carry straight on till you come to a crossroads.

Come from is used (in the present) to say where people's homes are or were.

She comes from Scotland, but her mother's Welsh.

Originally I come from Hungary, but I've lived here for twenty years. (NOT Originally I came from Hungary ... )

The difference between bring and take is similar. See 112.

For come/go and ... , see 53.

For come/go ... ing, see 228. For been = come/gone, see 95.

135 comparison (1): structures

Various words and structures can be used for comparing.

1 similarity and identity: as, like, so do I, too, the same, etc

If we want to say that people, things, actions or events are similar, we can use as or like (see 326); so/neither do I and similar structures (see 541); or adverbs such as too, also and as well (see 46). To say that they are identical, we can use the same (as) (see 503).

He liked working with horses, as his father did.

Your sister looks just like you. The papers were late and the post was too.

She likes music, and so do I. His eyes are just the same colour as mine.

2 equality: as ... as

To say that people, things etc are equal in a particular way, we often use the structure as (much/many) ... as (see 136).

My hands were as cold as ice. I earn as much money as you.

3 inequality: more ... than; older ... than; most, oldest, etc

To say that people, things etc are unequal in a particular way, we can use comparative adjectives and adverbs, or more + adjective/adverb (see 137-141).

He's much older than her. The baby's more attractive than you.

To say which one of a group is outstanding in a particular way, we can use a superlative or most + adjective/adverb (see 137-141).

You're the laziest and most annoying person in the whole office.

4 inequality: less, least; not so/as ... as

We can also talk about inequality by looking at the 'lower' end of the scale. One possibility is to use less (than) (see 320) or least (see 318).

The baby's less ugly than you.

I want to spend the least possible time working.

In informal usage, we more often use not so ... as or not as ... as (see 136).

The baby's not so ugly as you.

136 comparison (2): as ... as; as much/many as

1 use

We use as ... as to say that people or things are equal in some way.

She's as tall as her brother. Is it as good as you expected?

She speaks French as well as the rest of us.

2 negative structures

After not, we can use so ... as instead of as ... as.

He's not as/so friendly as she is. (more informal than He's less friendly ... )

3 as ... as + adjective/adverb

Note the structure as ... as + adjective/adverb.

Please get here as soon as possible.

I'll spend as much as necessary. You're as beautiful as ever.

4 pronouns after as

In an informal style we can use object pronouns (me, him etc) after as.

She doesn't sing as well as me.

In a formal style, we prefer subject + verb after as.

She doesn't sing as well as I do.

A subject form without a verb (e.g. as well as he) is unusual in this structure in modern English.

5 as much/many ... as

We can use as much/many ... as to talk about quantity.

I haven't got as much money as I thought.

We need as many people as possible.

As much/many can be used without following nouns.

I ate as much as I could. She didn't catch as many as she'd hoped.

And as much ... can be used as an adverb.

You ought to rest as much as possible.

6 emphatic use: as much as 80 kg

As much/many as can be used before a number to mean 'the large amount/quantity'.

Some of these fish can weigh as much as 80 kg.

There are sometimes as many as 40 students in the classes.

As little/few can be used to mean 'the small amount/quantity'.

You can fly to Paris for as little as 20 euros.

7 half as ... as etc

Half, twice, three times etc can be used before as ... as.

You're not half as clever as you think you are.

I'm not going out with a man who's twice as old as me.

It took three times as long as I expected. (OR... three times longer than I expected - see 141.3)

8 modification

Before as ... as we can use (not) nearly, almost, just, nothing like, every bit, exactly, not quite.

It's not nearly as cold as yesterday. He's just as strong as ever.

You're nothing like as bad-tempered as you used to be.

She's every bit as beautiful as her sister.

I'm not quite as tired as I was last week.

9 infinitives

Where as ... as is used with two infinitives, the second is often without to.

It's as easy to do it right as (to) do it wrong.

10 tenses

In as ... as-clauses (and other kinds of as-clauses), a present tense is often used to refer to the future, and a past tense can have a conditional meaning (see 580).

We'll get there as soon as you do/will.

If you married me, I'd give you as much freedom as you wanted.

11 leaving out the second part

The second part of the as ... as or so ... as structure can be left out when the meaning is clear from what comes before.

The train takes 40 minutes. By car it'll take you twice as long.

I used to think he was clever. Now I'm not so sure.

In cases like this, not so is much more common than not as.

12 traditional expressions

We use the structure as ... as ... in a lot of traditional comparative expressions.

as cold as ice   as hard as nails

as black as night   as ... as hell

The first as can be dropped in these expressions in an informal style.

She's hard as nails.

I'm tired as hell of listening to your problems.

Note that as is usually pronounced /əz/ (see 616).

For as long as, see 75. For as well as, see 78.

For the word order in sentences like She's as good a dancer as her brother, see 14.

For as replacing subject or object (e.g. as many people as want it), see 58l.

For other comparative structures, see 137-141.

137 comparison (3): comparative and superlative adjectives

One-syllable adjectives normally have comparatives and superlatives ending in -er, -est. Some two-syllable adjectives are similar; others have more and most. Longer adjectives have more and most.

1 one-syllable adjectives (regular comparison)

Adjective
Comparative
Superlative

old
tall
cheap
older
taller
cheaper
oldest
tallest
cheapest
Most adjectives:
+ -er, -est.

late
nice
later
nicer
latest
nicest
Adjectives
ending in -e: + -r, -st.

fat
big
thin
fatter
bigger
thinner
fattest
biggest
thinnest
One vowel + one consonant: double consonant.

Note the pronunciation of:

younger /'jʌŋgə(r)/   youngest /'jʌŋgɪst/

longer /'lɒŋgə(r)/   longest /'lɒŋgɪst/

stronger /'strɒŋgə(r)/   strongest /'strɒŋgɪst/

2 irregular comparison

Adjective
Comparative
Superlative

good
better
best

bad
worse
worst

ill
worse

far
farther/further 
(see 201)
farthest/furthest

old
older/elder 
(see 176)
oldest/eldest

The determiners little and much/many have irregular comparatives and superlatives:

little (see 329)   less (see 320)   least (see 318)

much/ many (see 357)   more (see 355)   most (see 356)

Few has two possible comparatives and superlatives: fewer/less and fewest/least. See 320, 318.

3 two-syllable adjectives

Adjectives ending in -y have -ier and -iest.

happy   happier   happiest

easy   easier   easiest

Some other two-syllable adjectives can have -er and -est, especially adjectives ending in an unstressed vowel, /l/ or /ə(r)/.

narrow   narrower   narrowest

simple   simpler   simplest

clever   cleverer   cleverest

quiet   quieter   quietest

With many two-syllable adjectives (e.g. polite, common), -er/ -est and more/most are both possible. With others (including adjectives ending in -ing, -ed, -ful and -less), only more/most is possible. In general, the structure with more/most is becoming more common. To find out the normal comparative and superlative for a particular two-syllable adjective, check in a good dictionary.

4 longer adjectives

Adjectives of three or more syllables have more and most.

intelligent    more intelligent    most intelligent

practical    more practical    most practical

beautiful    more beautiful    most beautiful

Words like unhappy (the opposites of two-syllable adjectives ending in -y) are an exception: they can have forms in -er and -est.

unhappy    unhappier / more unhappy    unhappiest / most unhappy

untidy    untidier / more untidy    untidiest / most untidy

Some compound adjectives like good-looking or well-known have two possible comparatives and superlatives.

good-looking    better-looking OR more good-looking    best-looking OR most good-looking

well-known   better-known OR more well-known    best-known OR most well-known

5 more, most with short adjectives

Sometimes more/most are used with adjectives that normally have -er/ -est. This can happen, for example, when a comparative is not followed immediately by than; forms with -er are also possible.

The road's getting more and more steep. (OR ... steeper and steeper.)

When we compare two descriptions (saying that one is more suitable or accurate than another), we use more; comparatives with -er are not possible.

He's more lazy than stupid. (NOT He's lazier than stupid.)

In a rather formal style, most can be used with adjectives expressing approval and disapproval (including one-syllable adjectives) to mean 'very'.

Thank you very much indeed. That is most kind of you. (NOT ... That is kindest of you.)

Real, right, wrong and like always have more and most.

She's more like her mother than her father. (NOT ... liker her mother ... )

For information about how to use comparatives and superlatives, see 139, 14l.

For modification of comparatives and superlatives (e.g. much alder, far the best), see 140.

138 comparison (4): comparative and superlative adverbs

Most comparative and superlative adverbs are made with more and most.

Could you talk more quietly? (NOT ... quietlier)

Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives (see 27), and a few others, have comparatives and superlatives with -er and -est. The most common are: fast, early, late, hard, long, near, high, low, soon, well (better, best), badly (worse, worst), and in informal English easy, slow, loud and quick.

Can't you drive any faster? Can you come earlier?

Talk louder. (informal)

We've all got terrible voices, but I sing worst of all.

Note also the irregular comparatives and superlatives of far (farther/further,farthest/furthest, see 201), much (more, most, see 355 and 356), little (less, least, see 320 and 318).

For the use of comparatives and superlatives, see the following sections.

139 comparison (5): using comparatives and superlatives

1 than

After comparatives we use than, not that or as.

Today's hotter than yesterday. (NOT ... hotter that ... OR ... hotter as ... )

2 the difference between comparatives and superlatives

We use a comparative to compare one person, thing, action, event or group with another person, thing etc. We use a superlative to compare somebody/something with the whole group that he/she/it belongs to.

Compare:

- Mary's taller than her three sisters.

Mary's the tallest of the four girls. (NOT ... the taller ... )

- Your accent is worse than mine.

Your accent is the worst in the class. (NOT ... the worse ... )

- He plays better than everybody else in the team.

He's the best in the team.

3 groups with two members

When a group only has two members, we sometimes use a comparative instead of a superlative.

I like Betty and Maud, but I think Maud's the nicer/nicest of the two.

I'll give you the bigger/biggest steak: I'm not very hungry.

Some people feel that a superlative is incorrect in this case.

4 double comparatives: fatter and fatter; more and more slowly

We can use double comparatives to say that something is changing.

I'm getting fatter and fatter.

We're going more and more slowly. (NOT ... more slowly and more slowly.)

5 the ... the ...

We can use comparatives with the ... the ... to say that things change or vary together.

Word order (in both clauses):

the + comparative expression + subject + verb

The older I get, the happier I am. (NOT Older I get, more I am happy.)

The more dangerous it is, the more I like it. (NOT The more it is dangerous, ... )

The more I study, the less I learn.

More can be used with a noun in this structure.

The more money he makes, the more useless things he buys.

In longer structures, that is sometimes used before the first verb.

The more information that comes in, the more confused the picture is.

A short form of this structure is used in the expression The more the merrier, and in sentences ending the better.

How do you like your coffee?~ The stronger the better.

Note that in this structure, the word the is not really the definite article - it was originally a form of the demonstrative pronoun, meaning 'by that much'.

6 than me; than I (am)

In an informal style, object pronouns (me etc) are used after than. In a more formal style, subject pronouns (I etc) are used (usually with verbs).

She's older than me. (informal) She is older than I (am). (formal)

7 the happiest man in the world

After superlatives, we do not usually use of with a singular word referring to a place or group.

I'm the happiest man in the world. (NOT  of the world.)

She's the fastest player in the team. (NOT of the team.)

But of can be used before plurals, and before lot.

She's the fastest player of them all. He's the best of the lot.

Note also the structure with possessive's.

He thinks he's the world's strongest man.

8 than anybody; the best ... ever

'Non-affirmative' words like ever, yet and any (see 381) often follow comparatives and superlatives.

You're more stubborn than anybody I know.

It's the best book I've ever read. This is my hardest job yet.

For the formation of comparatives and superlatives, see 137.

For tenses after than, see 580.

For the first/second/best etc + present/past perfect, see 591.

140 comparison (6): much, far etc with comparatives and superlatives

1 much, far etc with comparatives

We cannot use very with comparatives. Instead, we use, for example, much, far, very much, a lot (informal), lots (informal), any and no (see 57), rather, a little, a bit (informal), and even.

My boyfriend is much/far older than me. (NOT ... very older than me.)

Russian is much/far more difficult than Spanish.

very much nicer   rather more quickly

a bit more sensible (informal)   She looks no older than her daughter.

a lot happier (informal)   a little less expensive

Is your mother any better?   Your cooking is even worse than Harry's.

Quite cannot be used with comparatives except in the expression quite better, meaning 'recovered from an illness' (see 104.1). Any, no, a bit and a lot are not normally used to modify comparatives before nouns.

There are much/far nicer shops in the town centre. (BUT NOT ... a bit nicer shops ... )

2 many more/less/fewer

When more (see 355) modifies a plural noun, it is modified by many instead of much. Compare:

much / far / a lot etc more money

many / far / a lot etc more opportunities

Many is sometimes used to modify less (before a plural noun) and fewer, but this is unusual; far, a lot etc are more common.

far less words (more common than many less words)

a lot fewer accidents (more common than many fewer accidents)

3 much, by far, quite etc with superlatives

Superlatives can be modified by much and by far, and by other adverbs of degree such as quite (meaning 'absolutely'), almost, practically, nearly and easily.

He's much the most imaginative of them all.

She's by far the oldest.

We're walking by far the slowest.

He's quite the most stupid man I've ever met.

I'm nearly the oldest in the firm.

This is easily the worst party I've been to this year.

4 very with superlatives

Note the special use of very to emphasise superlatives and first, next and last.

Bring out your very best wine - Michael's coming to dinner.

You're the very first person I've spoken to today.

This is your very last chance.

For modification of too, see 595.3.

141 comparison (7): advanced points

1 comparative meaning 'relatively', 'more than average'

Comparatives can suggest ideas like 'relatively', 'more than average'. Used like this, comparatives make a less clear and narrow selection than superlatives. Compare:

There are two classes - one for the cleverer students and one for the slower learners.

The cleverest students were two girls from York.

Comparatives are often used in advertising to make things sound less definite.

less expensive clothes for the fuller figure (Compare cheap clothes for fat people)

2 all/any/none the + comparative

All the + comparative suggests the idea of 'even more ... '.

I feel all the better for that swim.

Her accident made it all the more important to get home fast.

Any and none can be used in similar structures.

He didn't seem to be any the worse for his experience.

He explained it all carefully, but I was still none the wiser.

Note that this structure is used mainly to express abstract ideas. We would not say, for example, Those pills have made him all the slimmer.

In this structure, the was originally a demonstrative, meaning 'by that'.

3 three times ... er etc

Instead of three/four etc times as much (see 136.7),we can use three/four etc times + comparative.

She can walk three times faster than you.

It was ten times more difficult than I expected.

Note that twice and half are not possible in this structure.

She's twice as lively as her sister. (NOT ... twice livelier ... )

4 words left out after than

Than often replaces a subject or object pronoun or an adverbial expression, rather like a relative pronoun or adverb (see 581).

She spent more money than was sensible. (NOT ... than it was sensible.)

There were more people than we had expected. (NOT ... than we had expected them.)

I love you more than she does. (NOT ... than how much she does.)

(In some English dialects, the above sentences would be constructed with than what.)

5 the youngest person to ...

After a superlative, an infinitive can mean the same as a relative clause.

She's the youngest person ever to swim the Channel. (= ... the youngest person who has ever swum ... )

This structure is also common after first, last and next.

Who was the first woman to climb Everest?

The next to speak was Mrs Fenshaw.

Note that this structure is only possible in cases where the noun with the superlative (or first etc) has a subject relationship with the following verb. In other cases, infinitives cannot be used.

Is this the first time that you have stayed here? (NOT ... the first time for you to stay here: time is not the subject of stay.)

6 the with superlatives

Nouns with superlative adjectives normally have the article the.

It's the best book I've ever read.

After link verbs, superlative adjectives also usually have the, though it is sometimes dropped in an informal style.

I'm the greatest. Which of the boys is (the) strongest?

This dictionary is (the) best.

The cannot be dropped when a superlative is used with a defining expression.

This dictionary is the best I could find. (NOT This dictianary is best I could find.)

However, we do not use the with superlatives when we compare the same person or thing in different situations. Compare:

- Of all my friends, he's (the) nicest. (comparing different people)

He's nicest when he's with children. (NOT He's the nicest when ... : we're comparing the same person in different situations.)

- She works (the) hardest in the family; her husband doesn't know what work is. (A woman is being compared with a man - the is possible.)

She works hardest when she's doing something for her family. (NOT She works the hardest when ... : - a woman's work is being compared in different situations.)

The is sometimes dropped before superlative adverbs in an informal style.

Who can run (the) fastest?

For tenses after than, see 580.

142 continual(ly) and continuous(ly)

Continual(ly) is generally used for things that happen repeatedly, often annoyingly.

I can't work with these continual interruptions.

She's continually taking days off.

Continuous(ly) is used for things that continue without stopping.

There has been continuous fighting on the border for the last 48 hours.

I've been working almost continuously since yesterday evening.

143 contractions

1 general rules

Forms like I've, don't are called 'contractions'. There are two kinds.

noun/pronoun etc + (auxiliary) verb

I'm tired.   My father's not very well.

Do you know when you'll arrive?   Where's the station?

I've no idea.   There's a problem.

She'd like to talk to you.   Somebody's coming.

Here's our bus.

(auxiliary) verb + not

They aren't ready.   I haven't seen him for ages.

You won't be late, will you?   Can't you swim?

Contractions are formed with auxiliary verbs, and also with be and sometimes have when these are not auxiliary verbs.

The short form 's (= is/has) can be written after nouns (including proper names), question words, here and now as well as pronouns and unstressed there. The short forms 'll, 'd and 're are commonly written after pronouns and unstressed there, but in other cases we more often write the full forms (especially in British English), even if the words would be contracted in pronunciation.

'Your mother will (/'mʌðərl/) be surprised', she said.

I wondered what had (/'wɒtəd/) happened.

Contractions are not usually written with double subjects.

John and I have decided to split up. (NOT John and I've decided ... )

The apostrophe (') goes in the same place as the letters that we leave out: has not = hasn't (NOT ha'snt). But note that shan't (BrE= shall not) and won't (= will not) only have one apostrophe each.

Contractions are common and correct in informal writing: they represent the pronunciation of informal speech. They are not generally used in a formal style.

2 alternative contractions

Some negative expressions can have two possible contractions. For she had not we can say she'd not or she hadn't; for he will not we can say he'll not or he won't. The two negative forms of be (e.g. she isn't and she's not) are both common in British English; American English prefers the forms with not (e.g. she's not). With other verbs, forms with n't (e.g. she hadn't) are more common in most cases in standard southern British English; they are the only forms normally used in AmE. (Forms with not - e.g. she'd not - tend to be more common in northern and Scottish English.)

Double contractions are not normally written: she'sn't is impossible.

3 position

Contractions in the first group (noun / pronoun / question word + auxiliary verb) do not normally come at the ends of clauses.

- I'm late. - I've forgotten.

Yes, you are. (NOT Yes, you're.) Yes, you have. (NOT Yes, you've.)

Negative contractions can come at the ends of clauses.

They really aren't. No, I haven't.

4 list of contractions

Contraction
Pronunciation

Meaning

I'm
/aɪm/
I am

I've
/aɪv/
I have

I'll
/aɪl/
I will

I'd
/aɪd/
I had/would

you're
/jɔ:(r)/
you are

you've
/ju:v/
you have

you'll
/ju:l/
you will

you'd
/ju:d/
you had/would

he's
/hi:z/
he is/has

he'll
/hi:l, hɪl/
he will

he'd
/hi:d/
he had/would

she's
/ʃi:z/
she is/has

she'll
/ʃi:l/
she will

she'd
/ʃi:d/
she had/would

it's
/ɪts/
it is/has

it'd (uncommon)
/'ɪtəd/
it had/would

we're
/wɪə(r)/
we are

we've
/wi:v/
we have

we'll
/wi:l, wɪl/
we will

we'd
/wi:d/
we had/would

they're
/ðeə(r)/
they are

they've
/ðeɪv/
they have

they'll
/ðeɪl,ðel/
they will

they'd
/ðeɪd/
they had/would

there's
/ðəz/
there is/has

there'll
/ðəl/
there will

there'd
/ðəd/
there had/would

aren't
/ɑ:nt/
are not

can't
/kɑ:nt/
cannot

couldn't
/'kʊdnt/
could not

daren't
/'deənt/
dare not

didn't
/'dɪdnt/
did not

doesn't
/'dʌznt/
does not

don't
/dəʊnt/
do not

hadn't
/'hædnt/
had not

hasn't
/'hæznt/
has not

haven't
/'hævnt/
have not

isn't
/'ɪznt/
is not

mightn't
/'maɪtnt/
might not

mustn't
/'mʌsnt/
must not

needn't
/ni:dnt/
need not

oughtn't
/'ɔ:tnt/
ought not

shan't
/ʃɑ:nt/
shall not

shouldn't
/'ʃʊdnt/
should not

usedn't
/'ju:snt/
used not

wasn't
/'wɒznt/
was not

weren't
/wɜ:nt/
were not

won't
/wəʊnt/
will not

wouldn't
/'wʊdnt/
would not

Notes

1. Do not confuse it's (= it is/has) and its (possessive).

2. Am not is only normally contracted in questions to aren't (BrE) (/ɑ:nt/).

I'm late, aren't I?

3. Note the difference in pronunciation of can't in British English (/kɑ:nt/) and American English (/kænt/).

4. Daren't, shan't and usedn't are not often used in American English.

5. In non-standard English, ain't (pronounced /eɪnt/ or /ent/ is used as a contraction of am not, are not, is not, have not and has not.

I ain't going to tell him.

Don't talk to me like that - you ain't my boss.

It's raining. ~ No it ain't.

I ain't got no more cigarettes.

Bill ain't been here for days.

6. For the contraction let's, see 323.

7. May not is not normally contracted: mayn't is very rare.

144 contrary

1 on the contrary and on the other hand

On the contrary is used to contradict - to say that what has been said or suggested is not true. If we want to give the other side of a question, we use on the other hand, not on the contrary. Compare:

- I suppose the job was boring?~ On the contrary, it was really exciting.

The job was boring, but on the other hand it was well paid. (NOT ... on the contrary, it was well paid.)

- He did not make things easy for his parents. On the contrary, he did everything he could to annoy and worry them.

He did not make things easy for his parents. On the other hand, he could often be wonderfully sweet and loving.

2 contrary and opposite

We use opposite (see 401), not contrary, to talk about contrasting words.

'Short' is the opposite of 'tall', and also of 'long'. (NOT ... the contrary of 'tall' ... )

145 control

Control is a 'false friend' for people who speak some languages. It generally means manage, direct, not check or inspect. Compare:

- The crowd was too big for the police to control. (= to keep in order.)

The police were checking everybody's papers. (NOT controlling everybody's papers.)

- I found the car difficult to control at high speeds.

1 took the car to the garage and asked them to have a look at the steering. (NOT ... to control the steering.)

However, the noun control is used with the meaning of 'inspection point' in expressions like passport/ customs control.

146 correspondence (1): letters

Each culture has its own way of organising a letter and arranging it on a page. English-speaking people generally observe the following rules.

1. Put your own address at the top on the right. Addresses generally follow the rule of 'smallest first': house number, then street, then town. Postcode and telephone number / fax number / email address come last. Don't put your name with the address.

2. Put the date directly under the address. A common way to write the date is to put the number of the day, followed by the month and year (e.g. 17 May 2005). For other ways (and differences between British and American customs) see 152.

3. In formal letters and business letters, put the name and address of the person you are writing to on the left side of the page, starting on the same level as the date or slightly below.

4. Different styles are common in formal letters on paper which has the address ready-printed at the top of the page. For example, the date may be put on the left, and the address of the person written to may come at the end of the letter or of the first page.

5. Begin the letter (Dear X) on the left. Common ways of addressing people are:

• by first name (informal): Dear Penny

• by title and surname (more formal): Dear Ms Hopkins

• Dear Sir(s), Dear Sir or Madam, Dear Madam (especially to somebody whose name is not known)

Some people like to use the first name and surname (Dear Penny Hopkins) when writing to strangers or people that they do not know well.

Do not use a title like Mr together with a first name (NOT Dear Mr James Carter)

6. After 'Dear X', put a comma or nothing at all, not an exclamation mark (!). Either leave an empty line after 'Dear X' and start again on the left, or start again on the next line, a few spaces from the left. Do the same for each new paragraph. (The first method is now the most common in Britain.)

7. Letters which begin Dear Sir(s) or Dear Madam usually finish Yours faithfully in British English. Formal letters which begin with the person's name (e.g. Dear Miss Haiokins, Dear Peter Lewis) usually finish Yours sincerely. Common American endings are Sincerely yours or Sincerely. Informal letters may finish, for example, Yours, See you or Love. (Love is not usually used by one man to another.) In formal letters, many people put a closing formula before Yours ... , especially when writing to people they know: common expressions are With best wishes and With kind regards.

8. Sign with your first name (informal) or your full name (formal), but without writing any title (Mr/ Ms/ Dr etc). Ways of writing one's full name: Alan Forbes, A Forbes, A J Forbes.

In a formal typewritten letter, add your full typewritten name after your handwritten signature. Friendly business letters are often signed with the first name only above the full typewritten name:

Yours sincerely

Alan

Alan Forbes

9. In informal letters, afterthoughts that are added after the signature are usually introduced by P S (Latin post scriptum = written afterwards).

10. On the envelope, put the first name before the surname. People usually write a title (Mr, Mrs etc) before the name. You can write the first name in full (Mrs Angela Brookes), or you can write one or more initials (Mrs A E Brookes). It was once common to put the abbreviated title Esq (= Esquire) after a man's name; this is now very unusual.

11. British people now usually write abbreviated titles, initials, addresses, dates, and opening and closing formulae without commas or full stops.

12. American usage is different from British in some ways:

• Commas are sometimes used at the ends of lines in addresses; full stops may be used at the ends of addresses; full stops are used after abbreviated titles. After the opening salutation, Americans may put a colon, especially in business letters (Dear Mr. Hawkes:), or a comma.

• Gentlemen is used instead of Dear Sirs.

• Dates are written differently (month before day) - see 152.

• Yours faithfully is not used; common endings are Sincerely, Sincerely yours or Yours truly, followed by a comma.

• Americans are often addressed (and sign their names) with the first name in full, followed by the initial of a middle name (Alan]. Parker). This is less usual in Britain.

13. Letters to strangers often begin with an explanation of the reason for writing.

Dear X

I am writing to ask ...

One does not normally begin a letter to a stranger with an enquiry about health. (NOT Dear X, How are you getting on?)

For more information about names and titles, see 363.

For more information about the use of commas and full stops. see 476, 473.

For more information about paragraphing, see 406.

Examples of letters and envelopes

Formal

Informal

147 correspondence (2): emails and text messages

1 formal emails: style and layout

Formal emails are similar in style to letters on paper. The writer's postal address and phone/fax number, if they are included, follow the signature.

2 informal emails

Personal emails are usually much more informal in style than letters on paper. Instead of 'Dear X', they often begin for example 'X', 'Hi, X', 'Hello, X'; or with no salutation at all.

3 addresses

email addresses are read as follows:

j.harris@funbiz.co.uk   'j dot harris at funbiz dot co dot u k'

mary@log-farm.com   'mary at log dash farm dot com'

the_rabbit@coolmail.gr   'the underline rabbit at coolmail dot g r'

Note also the names of symbols in 'urls' (internet addresses):

/ 'forward slash'      \ 'backslash'      : 'colon'

Example of an informal email

4 txt msgs (text messages)

Text messages (sent for example by mobile phone) use a large number of abbreviations to save time and space. Words are shortened, often by leaving out vowels. Letters and numbers are used instead of words (or parts of words) that sound the same. Initial letters only are used for some common expressions. Some typical examples:

c u l8r | See you later.
r u cumin 2day? | Are you coming today?
tx 4 a gr8 party | Thanks for a great party.
just 2 let u no | Just to let you know.
wil u b hr Thu eve? | Will you be here Thursday evening?
RUOK? | Are you OK?
got ur msg | Got your message.
wil b @ bbq @ 9 | Will be at barbeque at 9.
2 bsy atm, tlk l8r | Too busy at the moment, talk later.
if Uv tym, send pix o kids | If you have time, send pictures of kids.
need mo infmtn | Need more information.

148 countable and uncountable nouns (1): basic information

1 the difference between countable and uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which can be counted. We can use numbers and the article a/an with countable nouns; they have plurals.

a cat   a newspaper   three cats   two newspapers

Uncountable (or 'mass') nouns are the names of materials, liquids, abstract qualities, collections and other things which we see as masses without clear boundaries, and not as separate objects. We cannot use numbers with uncountable nouns, and most are singular with no plurals. We do not normally use a/an with uncountable nouns, though there are some exceptions (see 149.4).

water (NOT a water, two waters) wool (NOT a wool, two wools)

weather (NOT a weather, two weathers)

Some determiners (see 154) can only be used with countable nouns (e.g. many, few); others can only be used with uncountables (e.g. much, little). Compare:

How many hours do you work? How much money do you earn?

2 problems

Usually it is easy to see whether a noun is countable or uncountable. Obviously house is normally a countable noun, and sand is not. But it is not always so clear: compare a journey (countable) and travel (uncountable); a glass (countable) and glass (uncountable); vegetables (countable) and fruit (uncountable). The following rules will help, but to know exactly how a particular noun can be used, it is necessary to check in a good dictionary.

3 travel and a journey; a piece of advice

Travel and journey have very similar meanings, but travel is normally uncountable (it means 'travelling in general', and we do not talk about 'a travel'), while journey is countable (a journey is one particular movement from one place to another) and can have a plural: journeys.

I like travel, but it's often tiring. Did you have a good journey?

Often we can make an uncountable word countable by putting 'a piece of' or a similar expression in front of it.

He never listens to advice. Can I give you a piece of advice?

Here are some other examples of general/particular pairs. (Note that some words that are uncountable in English have countable equivalents in other languages.)

Uncountable | Countable
accommodation | a place to live (NOT an accommodation)
baggage | a piece/item of baggage; a case/trunk/bag
bread | a piece/loaf of bread; a loaf; a roll
chess | a game of chess
chewing gum | a piece of chewing gum (NOT a chewing gum)
equipment | a piece of equipment; a tool etc
furniture | a piece/article of furniture; a table, chair etc
information | a piece of information
knowledge | a fact
lighning | a flash of lighning
luck | a piece/bit/stroke of luck
luggage | a piece/item of luggage; a case/trunk/bag
money | a note; a coin; a sum
news | a piece of news
permission | -
poetry | a poem
progress | a step forward; an advance
publicity | an advertisement
research | a piece of research; an experiment
rubbish | a piece of rubbish
slang | a slang word/expression
thunder | a clap of thunder
traffic | carsetc
vocabulary | a word/expression
work | a job; a piece of work

Note that when uncountable English words are borrowed by other languages, they may change into countable words with different meanings (for example parking means the activity of parking in general, but French un parking means 'a car park').

4 materials: glass, paper etc

Words for materials are uncountable, but we can often use the same word as a

countable noun to refer to something made of the material. Compare:

- I'd like some typing paper.

I'm going out to buy a paper (= a newspaper)

- The window's made of unbreakable glass.

Would you like a glass of water?

Nouns for materials, liquids etc can be countable when they are used to talk about different types.

Not all washing powders are kind to your hands.

We have a selection of fine wines at very good prices.

The same thing happens when we talk about ordering drinks. Compare:

Have you got any coffee?

Could I have two coffees? (= cups of coffee)

5 fruit, rice, wheat, spaghetti, hair; vegetables, peas, grapes, oats

Many things (e.g. rice, grapes) can be seen either as a collection of separate elements or as a mass. Some names for things of this kind are uncountable, while others are countable (usually plural).

Uncountable: fruit, rice, spaghetti, macaroni (and other pasta foods), sugar, salt, corn, wheat, barley, rye, maize.

Countable: vegetable(s), bean(s), pears), grape(s), oats, lentil(s).

Fruit is very expensive, but vegetables are cheap.

Wheat is used to make bread; oats are used to make porridge.

Is the spaghetti ready? These grapes are sour.

Hair is normally uncountable in English.

His hair is black.

But one strand of hair is a hair (countable).

So why has he got two blonde hairs on his jacket?

For words that are used to talk about one 'piece' of uncountable collections (e.g. a grain of corn, a blade of grass), see 430.

6 abstract nouns: time, life, experience etc

Many abstract nouns can have both uncountable and countable uses, often corresponding to more 'general' and more 'particular' meanings. Compare:

- Don't hurry - there's plenty of time.

Have a good time.

There are times when I just want to stop work.

- Life is complicated.

He's had a really difficult life.

- She hasn't got enough experience for the job.

I had some strange experiences last week.

- It's hard to feel pity for people like that.

It's a pity it's raining.

- Your plan needs more thought.

I had some frightening thoughts in the night.

- I need to practise conversation.

Jane and I had a very interesting conversation.

See 149.2 for more details.

For more about time, see 593; for life, see 324.

7 illnesses

The names of illnesses are usually singular uncountable in English, including those ending in -s.

If you've already had measles, you can't get it again.

There's a lot of flu around at the moment.

The words for some minor ailments are countable: e.g. a cold, a sore throat, a headache. However, toothache, earache, stomach-ache and backache are usually uncountable in British English. In American English, these words are generally countable if they refer to particular attacks of pain. Compare:

I've got toothache. (BrE) I have a toothache. (AmE)

For the with measles, flu etc, see 70.14.

For more information on the use of articles with countable and uncountable nouns, see 65.

149 countable and uncountable nouns (2): advanced points

1 20 square metres of wall

Singular countable nouns are sometimes used as uncountables (e.g. with much, enough, plenty of or a lot of) in order to express the idea of amount.

There's enough paint for 20 square metres of wall.

I've got too much nose and not enough chin.

If you buy one of these you get plenty of car for your money.

2 not much difference

Some countable abstract nouns can be used uncountably after little, much and other determiners. Common examples are difference, point, reason, idea, change, difficulty, chance and question.

There's not much difference between 'begin' and 'start'.

I don't see much point in arguing about it.

We have little reason to expect prices to fall.

I haven't got much idea of her plans.

There isn't any change in his condition.

They experienced little difficulty in stealing the painting.

Do you think we have much chance of catching the train?

There's some question of our getting a new Managing Director.

Note the expression have difficulty (in) ... ing.

I have difficulty (in) remembering faces. (NOT I have difficulties ... )

3 in all weathers; on your travels

A few uncountable nouns have plural uses in fixed expressions.

He goes running in all weathers.

Did you meet anybody exciting on your travels?

Gulliver's Travels (novel by Jonathan Swift)

4 a/an with uncountable nouns

With certain uncountable nouns - especially nouns referring to human emotions and mental activity - we often use a/an when we are limiting their meaning in some way.

We need a secretary with a first-class knowledge of German. (NOT ... with first-class knowledge of German.)

She has always had a deep distrust of strangers.

That child shows a surprising understanding of adult behaviour.

My parents wanted me to have a good education. (NOT ... to have good education.)

You've been a great help.

I need a good sleep.

Note that these nouns cannot normally be used in the plural, and that most uncountable nouns cannot be used with a/an at all, even when they have an adjective.

My father enjoys very good health. (NOT ... a very good health)

We're having terrible weather. (NOT ... a terrible weather)

He speaks excellent English. (NOT ... an excellent English.)

It's interesting work. (NOT ... an interesting work.)

5 plural uncountables

Some uncountable nouns are plural. They have no singular forms with the same meaning, and cannot normally be used with numbers.

I've bought the groceries. (BUT NOT ... a grocery. OR ... three groceries.)

The Dover customs have found a large shipment of cocaine. (BUT NOT The Dover custom has ... )

Many thanks for your help. (BUT NOT Much thank ... )

For details, see 524.7.

150 country

1 countable use

Country (countable) = 'nation', 'land'.

Scotland is a cold country.

France is the country I know best.

How many countries are there in Europe?

2 uncountable use

Country (uncountable) = 'open land without many buildings'.

I like wild country best.

With this meaning, we cannot say a country or countries.

My parents live in nice country near Belfast. (NOT ... in a nice country ... )

The expression the country (the opposite of the town) is very common.

We live in the country just outside Manchester.

Would you rather live in the town or the country?

For information about countable and uncountable nouns, see 148-149.

151 dare

1 uncommon

In modern English, dare is not a very common verb. In an informal style, people generally use other expressions.

He's not afraid to say what he thinks.

2 negative use; daren't

Dare is, however, quite often used in negative sentences. It can be followed by an infinitive with or without to.

She doesn't dare (to) go out at night.

The old lady didn't dare (to) open the door.

A special negative form daren't (+ infinitive without to) is common in British English.

I daren't look.

The third person singular is also daren't, without -s,

She daren't tell him what she thinks.

3 special expressions

Don't you dare! is sometimes used to discourage people from doing unwanted things.

Mummy, can I draw a picture on the wall?~ Don't you dare!

How dare you? is sometimes used as an indignant exclamation.

How dare you? Take your hands off me at once!

And I dare say (sometimes written I daresay) is used to mean 'I think probably', 'I suppose'.

I dare say it'll rain soon. I daresay you're ready for a drink.

Children use the expression I dare you + infinitive to challenge each other to do frightening things.

I dare you to run across the road with your eyes shut.

152 dates

1 writing

In Britain, the commonest way to write the day's date is as follows. Note that the names of months always begin with capital letters (see 556).

30 March 2004    27 July 2003

The last two letters of the number word are sometimes added (e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 6th). Some people write a comma before the year, but this is no longer very common in Britain except when the date comes inside a sentence.

30th March(,) 2004

He was born in Hawick on 14 December, 1942.

The date may be written entirely in figures.

30/3/04   30-3-04   30.3.04

In the USA it is common to write the month first and to put a comma before the year.

March 30, 2004

All-figure dates are written differently in Britain and America, since British people put the day first while Americans generally start with the month. So for example, 6.4.02 means '6 April 2002' in Britain, but 'June 4, 2002' in the USA.

The longer names of the months are often abbreviated as follows:

Jan   Feb   Mar   Apr   Aug   Sept   Oct   Nov   Dec

The names of decades (e.g. the nineteen sixties) can be written like this: the 1960s.

For the position of dates in letters, see 146.

For full stops in abbreviations, see 2.

2 speaking

30 March 1993 = 'March the thirtieth, nineteen ninety-three' (AmE also 'March thirtieth ...') or 'the thirtieth of March, nineteen ninety-three'

1200 = 'twelve hundred'

1305 = 'thirteen hundred and five' or 'thirteen O (/əʊ/) five'

1498 = 'fourteen (hundred and) ninety-eight'

1910 = 'nineteen (hundred and) ten'

1946 = 'nineteen (hundred and) forty-six'

2000 = 'two thousand'

2005 = 'two thousand and five'

To announce the date, It's is used.

It's April the first.

To ask about dates, we can say for instance:

What's the date (today)? What date is it?

What date is your birthday?

3 BC and AD

To distinguish between dates before and after the birth of Christ, we use the abbreviations BC (= Before Christ) and AD (= Anno Domini - Latin for 'in the year of the Lord'). BC follows the date; AD can come before or after it.

Julius Caesar first came to Britain in 55 BC.

The emperor Trajan was born in AD 53 / 53 AD.

153 dead, died and death

Dead is an adjective.

a dead man    Mrs McGinty is dead.

That idea has been dead for years.

Died is the past tense and past participle of the verb die.

Shakespeare died in 1616. (NOT Shakespeare dead ... )

She died in a car crash. (NOT She is dead in ... )

So far 50 people have died in the fighting.

Note the spelling of the present participle dying (see 561).

Death is a noun meaning 'the end of life'.

After his death his wife went to live in Canada.

For expressions like the dead (= dead people), see 17.

154 determiners: the, my, some, several etc

1 What are determiners?

Determiners are words like the, a, my, this, some, either, every, enough, several.

Determiners come at the beginning of noun phrases, but they are not adjectives.

the moon   this house   every week

a nice day   some problems   enough trouble

my fat old cat   either arm   several young students

There are two main groups of determiners.

2 Group A determiners: the, my, this, ...

These help to identify things - to say whether they are known or unknown to the hearer, which one(s) the speaker is talking about, whether the speaker is thinking of particular examples or speaking in general, etc. There are three kinds:

articles: a/an, the (see 61-70)

possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their, one's, whose (see 441, 626)

demonstratives: this, these, that, those (see 589)

We cannot put two Group A determiners together. We can say a friend, my friend or this friend, but not the my friend, the this friend, this my friend or my this friend. To put a possessive together with a/an or a demonstrative, we can use the structure a/this ... of mine/yours etc (see 443).

She's a friend of mine. (NOT She's a my friend.)

Nouns with possessive's (see 439-440) can be used like determiners (e.g. Britain's weather).

3 Group B determiners: some, each, much, enough etc

Most of these are 'quantifiers': they say how much or how many we are talking about. The most important are:

some, any, no

each, every, either, neither

much, many, more, most; (a) little, less, least; (a) few, fewer, fewest; enough; several

all, both, half

what, whatever, which, whichever

Some Group B determiners are used with singular nouns (e.g. each), some with plurals (e.g. many), some with uncountables (e.g. much), and some with more than one kind of noun (e.g. which).

We can put two Group B determiners together if the combination makes sense.

We meet every few days. Have you got any more coffee?

For details of the use of Group B determiners, look up the sections on particular words.

4 Group B + Group A: some of the people

Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns, without of.

Have you got any sugar? (NOT ... any of sugar.)

Most people agree with me. (NOT Most of people ... )

But if we want to put a Group B determiner before a noun which has a Group A determiner (article, possessive or demonstrative), we have to use of. Compare:

- some people    - enough remarks

some of the people    enough of those remarks

- which friends    - neither door

which of your friends    neither of these doors

- each child    - most shops

each of my children    most of the shops

A Group B determiner + of can be used directly before a noun in a few cases. This happens with proper nouns such as place names, and sometimes with

uncountable nouns that refer to the whole of a subject or activity.

Most of Wales was without electricity last night.

Much of philosophy is concerned with questions that have no answers.

5 Group B + of + pronoun: most of us

Group B determiners are used with of before pronouns.

neither of them    which of us    most of you

6 no and none; every and every one

No and every are not used before of, instead we use none and every one. Compare:

- no friends    - every blouse

none of my friends    every one of these blouses

7 all (of), both (of), half (of)

We can leave out of after all, both and half when they are followed by nouns (but not when they are followed by pronouns).

all (of) his ideas    half (of) her income

both (of) my parents    but all of us (NOT all us)

Note that when each, every, either and neither are used directly before nouns without of, the nouns are singular. Compare:

- each tree    - neither partner

each of the trees    neither of the partners

8 Group A + Group B: his many friends

Certain Group B determiners can be used after Group A determiners.

They are many, most, little, least and few.

his many friends    these few poems    the least time

the most money    a little time    a few questions

For the difference between little and a little, and between few and a few, see 329.

9 other determiners: other, such, what, only, numbers

There are a few other determiners that do not fit into Groups A and B. They are other, such, what (in exclamations), only and numbers. Other, only and numbers come after Group A determiners (another is written as one word); such and what come before the article a/an.

my other sister    such a nice day

the only possibility    the three bears

what a pity

Other and such can also come after some Group B determiners.

many other problems    most such requests

10 determiners without nouns; I haven't read any

Nouns are often dropped after determiners if the meaning is clear.

Do you know Orwell's books? ~ I haven't read any.

Have we got any tomatoes? ~ A few.

Which chair do you want? ~ This will do.

Determiners are sometimes used without nouns to refer to people in general. This is formal and generally rather old-fashioned.

Many are called but few are chosen. (The Bible)

Some say one thing, some say another.

OPEN MEETING: ALL (ARE) WELCOME.

Possessives (except whose and his) have different forms when they are used without nouns: mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs (see 442). Compare:

That's my coat    That's mine.

Its and one's are not used without nouns. (See 442)

For others meaning 'other people', see 54.4. For all meaning everything, see 38.2.

For expressions like a lot of, a heap of, the majority of, see 333.

For more information about particular determiners, consult the entries for the individual words (see Index).

155 different

1 modifiers: any different etc

Different is a little like a comparative: unlike most adjectives, it can be modified by any and no, (a) little and not much.

I hadn't seen her for years, but she wasn't any different.

How's the patient, doctor? ~ No different.

His ideas are little different from those of his friends.

The new school isn't much different from the old one.

Quite different means 'completely different' (see 489.3).

I thought you'd be like your sister, but you're quite different.

Unlike comparatives, different can also be modified by very.

She's very different from her sister.

2 prepositions: different from/to

From is generally used after different; many British people also use to. In American English, than is common.

American football is very different from/to soccer.

(AmE ... different from/than soccer.)

Before a clause, different than is also possible in British English.

The job's different than I expected.

(OR ... different from/to what I expected.)

For the difference between different and other, see 54.5

156 direct speech: reporting verbs and word order

1 informal spoken reports: said, thought

When we repeat people's words or thoughts, we normally use say or think. They can go before sentences or at other natural breaks (e.g. between clauses or after discourse markers).

So I said 'What are you doing in our bedroom?' 'I'm sorry', he said, 'I thought it was my room.' Well, I thought, that's funny, he's got my handbag open. 'If that's the case,' I said, 'what are you doing with my handbag?'

2 literary direct speech: ask, exclaim, suggest ...

In novels, short stories etc, a much wider variety of reporting verbs are used: for example ask, exclaim, suggest, reply, cry, reflect, suppose, grunt, snarl, hiss, whisper. And reporting verbs are often put before their subjects ('inversion' - see 303).

'Is this Mr Rochester's house?' asked Emma.

'Great Heavens!' cried Celia. 'Is there no end to your wickedness? I implore you - leave me alone!' 'Never,' hissed the Duke ...

Inversion is not normal with pronoun subjects.

'You monster!' she screamed. (NOT ... screamed she.)

In literary writing, reporting expressions often interrupt the normal flow of the sentences quoted.

'Your information,' I replied, 'is out of date.'

157 discourse markers

Discourse means 'pieces of language longer than a sentence'. Some words and expressions are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the structure of what is being said; they can indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have said. There are a very large number of these 'discourse markers', and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are a few of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal speech or writing; others are more common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause.

1 focusing and linking

†   with reference to; talking/speaking off about; regarding, as regards; as far as ... is concerned; as for

These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by referring back to what was said before.

With reference to is a very formal expression used mainly at the beginning of business letters.

With reference to your letter of 17 March, I am pleased to inform you ...

Speaking/talking of/about ... is used to make a link with what has just been said. It can help a speaker to change the subject.

I saw Max and Lucy today. You know, she - ~ Talking of Max, did you know he's going to Australia?

Regarding can come at the beginning of a piece of discourse.

Hello, John. Now look, regarding those sales figures - I really don't think ...

As regards and as far as ... is concerned usually announce a change of subject by the speaker/writer.

... there are no problems about production. Now as regards marketing ...

... about production. As far as marketing is concerned, I think ...

People sometimes leave out is concerned after as far as ... This is usually considered incorrect.

As far as the new development plan, I think we ought to be very careful.

As for often suggests lack of interest or dislike.

I've invited Andy and Bob. As for Stephen, I never want to see him again.

2 balancing contrasting points

†  on the one hand (formal), on the other hand; while; whereas

These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not contradict each other.

Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand, they are unusual.

On the one hand, we need to reduce costs. On the other hand, investment ...

I like the mountains, while/whereas my wife prefers the seaside.

While and whereas can be put before the first of the contrasting points.

While/Whereas some languages have 30 or more different vowel sounds, others have five or less.

For a comparison of on the other hand and on the contrary, see 144.

3 emphasising a contrast

†   however; nevertheless; nonetheless; mind you; still; yet; in spite of this/ that; despite this/that

However, nevertheless and nonetheless emphasise the fact that the second point contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is very formal.

Britain came last in the World Children's Games. However, we did have one success, with Annie Smith's world record in the sack race.

It was an oppressive dictatorship, but nevertheless it ensured stability.

Mind you (less formal) and still introduce the contrasting point as an afterthought.

I don't like the job much. Mind you / Still, the money's OK

Yet, still, in spite of this/that and despite this/that (more formal) can be used to suggest that something is surprising, in view of what was said before.

He says he's a socialist, and yet he owns three houses and drives a Rolls.

The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I managed to get to the meeting in time. (OR ... I still managed to get ... )

4 similarity

†   similarly; in the same way; just as

These are most common in a formal style.

The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning of the holiday season. Similarly, there are often serious traffic jams at the end of the holidays.

James Carter did everything he could to educate his children. In the same way, they in turn put a high value on their own children's education.

Just as the Greeks looked down on the Romans, the Romans looked down on their uncivilised neighbours.

5 concession and counter-argument

†   concession: it is true; certainly; of course; granted; if; may; stressed auxiliaries.

†   counter-argument: however; even so; but; nevertheless; nonetheless; all the same; still

These expressions are used in a three-part structure: (1) there is discussion of facts that point in a certain direction; (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular contradictory fact points the other way; (3) but the speaker/writer dismisses this and returns to the original direction of argument.

... cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.

... incapable of lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.

Very few people understood Einstein's theory. Of course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair number of people knew the word 'relativity'. But hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.

I'm not impressed by her work. Granted, she writes like an angel. But she doesn't write about anything of any interest.

It was a successful party. The Scottish cousins, if a little surprised by the family's behaviour, were nonetheless impressed by the friendly welcome they received.

I'm glad to have a place of my own. It's true it's a bit small, and it's a long way from the centre, and it does need a lot of repairs done. Still, it's home.

For other uses of still, see 566. For other uses of of course, see 390.

6 contradicting

†   on the contrary; quite the opposite

These expressions can contradict a suggestion made by another speaker.

Interesting lecture? ~ On the contrary / Quite the opposite, it was a complete waste of time.

They can also be used when a speaker/writer strengthens a negative statement which he/she has just made.

She did not allow the accident to discourage her. On the contrary / Quite the opposite, she began to work twice as hard.

For a comparison of on the contrary and on the other hand, see 144.

7 dismissal of previous discourse

†   at least; anyway; anyhow; at any rate; in any case

At least can suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if everything else is unsatisfactory.

The car's completely smashed up - I don't know what we're going to do. At least nobody was hurt.

The other four expressions are used (mostly informally) to mean 'What was said before doesn't matter - the main point is as follows'.

I'm not sure what time I'll arrive, maybe seven or eight. Anyway / Anyhow / At any rate / In any case, I'll certainly be there before eight thirty.

Note that anyway is not the same as in any way, which means 'by any method'.

Can I help you in any way?

8 change of subject

†   by the way; incidentally; right; all right; now; OK

By the way and incidentally are used to introduce something one has just thought of that is not directly part of the conversation.

I was talking to Phil yesterday. Oh, by the way, he sends you his regards. Well, he thinks ...

Janet wants to talk to you about advertising. Incidentally, she's lost a lot of weight. Anyway, it seems the budget ...

These two expressions are sometimes used to change the subject completely.

Freddy's had another crash. ~ Oh, yes? Poor old chap. By the way, have you heard from Joan recently?

Lovely sunset. ~ Yes, isn't it? Oh, incidentally, what happened to that bike I lent you?

(All) right, now and OK are often used informally by teachers, lecturers and people giving instructions, to indicate that a new section of the discourse is starting.

Any questions? Right, let's have a word about tomorrow's arrangements.

Now, I'd like to say something about the exam ...

Is that all clear? OK, now has anybody ever wondered why it's impossible to tickle yourself? ...

9 return to previous subject

†   to return to the previous point (formal); as I was saying (informal)

These expressions are used to return to an earlier subject after an interruption or a brief change of subject.

... especially in France. To return to the previous point, non-European historians ...

... on the roof - Jeremy, put the cat down, please. As I was saying, if Jack gets up on the roof and looks at the tiles ...

10 structuring

†   first(ly), first of all, second(ly), third(ly) etc; lastly; finally; to begin with; to start with; in the first/second/third place; for one thing (informal); for another thing (informal)

We use these to show the structure of what we are saying.

First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find work.

There are three reasons why I don't want to dance with you. To start with, my feet hurt. For another thing, you can't dance. And lastly, ...

Firstly, secondly etc are more formal than first, second etc.

For at first, see 84. For at last, see 204.

11 adding

†   moreover (very formal); furthermore (formal); in addition; as well as that; on top of that (informal); another thing is (informal); what is more; also; besides; in any case

These expressions introduce additional information or arguments.

The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit that he can ever be mistaken. Moreover, he is totally incapable ...

The peasants are desperately short of food. Furthermore / In addition, they urgently need doctors and medical supplies.

She borrowed my bike and never gave it back. And as well as that / on top of that / what is more, she broke the lawnmower and then pretended she hadn't.

If Janet and Pete come and stay, where's Mary going to sleep? Another thing is, we can't go away next weekend if they're here.

Her father was out of work. Also, her mother was in poor health.

Besides and in any case can add an extra, more conclusive fact or argument.

What are you trying to get a job as a secretary for? You'd never manage to work eight hours a day. Besides / In any case, you can't type.

12 generalising

†   on the whole; in general; in all/most/many/some cases; broadly speaking; by and large; to a great extent; to some extent; apart from ... ; except for ....

These expressions say how far the speaker/writer thinks a generalisation is true.

On the whole, I had a happy childhood.

In general, we are satisfied with the work.

In most cases, people will be nice to you if you are nice to them.

Broadly speaking, teachers are overworked and underpaid.

By and large, this is a pleasant place to live.

To a great extent, a person's character is formed by the age of eight.

Apart from and except for (see 102) introduce exceptions to generalisations.

Apart from the soup, I thought the meal was excellent.

Except for Sally, they all seemed pretty sensible.

13 giving examples

†   for instance; for example; e.g.; in particular

These expressions introduce particular examples to illustrate what has been said.

People often behave strangely when they're abroad. Take Mrs Ellis, for example / for instance, ...

In writing, the abbreviation e.g. (Latin exempli gratia), pronounced /i:'dʒi:/, is often used to mean 'for example'.

Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine, ...

In particular focuses on a special example.

We are not at all happy with the work you did on the new kitchen. In particular, we consider that the quality of wood used ...

14 logical consequence

†   therefore (formal); as a result (formal); consequently (formal); so; then

These expressions show that what is said follows logically from what was said before.

She was therefore unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.

So she had to get married to a man she didn't like.

The last bus has gone. ~ Then we're going to have to walk.

Therefore is used in logical, mathematical and scientific proofs.

Therefore 2x - 15 = 17y + 6.

So is often used as a general-purpose connector, rather like and, in speech.

So anyway, this man came up to me and said 'Have you got a light?' So I told him no, I hadn't. So he looked at me and ...

For the difference between so and then, see 537.

15 making things clear; giving details

†   I mean; actually; that is to say; in other words

We use I mean (see 348) when we make things clearer or give more details.

It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat round and talked politics.

Actually (see 11) can introduce details, especially when these are unexpected.

Tommy's really stupid. He actually still believes in Father Christmas.

That is to say and in other words are used when the speaker/writer says something again in another way.

We cannot continue with the deal on this basis. That is to say / In other words, unless you can bring down the price we shall have to cancel the order.

16 softening and correcting

†   I think; I feel; I reckon (informal); I guess (informal); in my view/opinion (formal); apparently; so to speak; more or less; sort of (informal); kind of (informal); well; really; that is to say; at least; I'm afraid; I suppose; or rather; actually; I mean

I think/feel/reckon/guess and in my view/opinion are used to make opinions and statements sound less dogmatic - they suggest that the speaker is just giving a personal opinion, with which other people may disagree.

I think you ought to try again.

I really feel she's making a mistake.

I reckon/guess she just doesn't respect you, Bill.

In my view/opinion, it would be better to wait until July.

Apparently can be used to say that the speaker has got his/her information from somebody else (and perhaps does not guarantee that it is true).

Have you heard? Apparently Susie's pregnant again

So to speak, more or less and sort/kind of (see 551) are used to show that one is not speaking very exactly, or to soften something which might upset other people. Well and really can also be used to soften.

I sort of think we ought to start going home, perhaps, really.

I kind of think it's more or less a crime.

Do you like it? ~ Well, yes, it's all right.

That is to say and at least can be used to 'back down' from something too strong or definite that one has said.

I'm not working for you again. Well, that's to say, not unless you put my wages up.

Ghosts don't exist. At least, I've never seen one.

I'm afraid (see 28.2) is apologetic: it can introduce a polite refusal, or bad news.

I'm afraid I can't help you. I'm afraid I forgot to buy the stamps.

I suppose can be used to enquire politely about something (respectfully inviting an affirmative answer).

I suppose you're very busy just at the moment?

It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.

Can you help me for a minute? ~ I suppose so.

Actually (see 11) can correct misunderstandings.

Hello, John. ~ Actually, my name's Andy.

Well can soften corrections, suggesting 'That's nearly right'.

You live in Oxford, don't you? ~ Well, near Oxford.

Or rather is used to correct oneself.

I'm seeing him in May - or rather early June.

I mean (see 348) can be used to correct oneself or to soften.

Let's meet next Monday - I mean Tuesday.

She's not very nice. I mean, I know some people like her, but ...

17 gaining time

†   let me see; let's see; well; you know; I don't know; I mean; kind of, sort of

Expressions of this kind (often called 'fillers') give the speaker time to think.

How much are you selling it for? ~ Well, let me see ...

Why did you do that? ~ Oh, well, you know, I don't know, really, I mean, it just sort of seemed a good idea.

18 showing one's attitude to what one is saying

†   honestly; frankly; no doubt

Honestly can be used to claim that one is speaking sincerely.

Honestly, I never said a word to him about the money.

Both honestly and frankly can introduce critical remarks.

Honestly, John, why do you have to be so rude?

What do you think of my hair? ~ Frankly, dear, it's a disaster.

No doubt (see 377) suggests that the speaker/writer thinks something is probable, but does not know for certain himself/herself.

No doubt the Romans enjoyed telling jokes, just like us.

19 persuading

†   after all; look; look here

After all (see 31) suggests 'this is a strong argument that you haven't taken into consideration'. Look is more strongly persuasive.

I think we should let her go on holiday alone. After all, she is fifteen - she's not a child any more.

You can't go there tomorrow. Look, the trains aren't running.

Look here is an angry exclamation meaning 'You can't say/do that!'

Look here! What are you doing with my suitcase?

No doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things.

No doubt you'll be paying your rent soon?

20 referring to the other person's expectations

†   actually (especially BrE); in fact; as a matter of fact; to tell the truth; well

These expressions are used when we show whether somebody's expectations have been fulfilled or not. Actually (see 11) can be used to say that somebody 'guessed right'.

Did you enjoy your holiday? ~ Very much, actually.

Actually, in fact and as a matter of fact can introduce additional surprising or unexpected information.

The weather was awful. Actually, the campsite got flooded and we had to come home.

Was the concert nice?~ Yes, as a matter of fact it was terrific.

Did you meet the Minister? ~ Yes. In fact, he asked us to lunch.

Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact and to tell the truth can be used to say that the hearer's expectations were not fulfilled.

How was the holiday?. ~ Well, actually, we didn't go.

Where are the carrots? ~ Well, in fact / to tell the truth, I forgot to buy them.

I hope you passed the exam. ~ No, as a matter of fact, I didn't.

After a new subject has been announced, well can suggest that something new or surprising is going to be said about it.

What did you think of her boyfriend? ~ Well, I was a bit surprised ...

You know that new house? Well, you'll never guess who's bought it.

21 summing up

†   in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short

These expressions are most common in a formal style.

... In conclusion, then, we can see that Britain's economic problems were mainly due to lack of industrial investment.

To sum up: most of the committee members supported the idea but a few were against it.

He's lazy, he's ignorant and he's stupid. In short, he's useless

158 do (1): introduction

Do has three main uses.

1 auxiliary verb

The auxiliary do is used to form the questions and negatives of other verbs, as well as emphatic and shortened forms. For details, see 159.

Did you remember to post my letters?

This doesn't taste very nice. I do like your earrings.

John eats too much. ~ He certainly does.

2 general-purpose verb

Do is also an ordinary (non-auxiliary) verb. It can refer to almost any kind of activity, and is used when it is not necessary or not possible to be more precise. For details, and the difference between do and make, see 160.

What are you doing?   Don't just stand there. Do something.

I've finished the phone calls, and I'll do the letters tomorrow.

3 substitute verb

In British English, do can be used alone as a substitute for a main verb after an auxiliary. For details, see 161.

Do you think Phil will come? ~ He might do. (AmE He might.)

Do so/it/that can be used as a substitute expression when we want to avoid repeating another verb and what follows. For details, see 162.

I need to take a rest, and I shall do so as soon as I can find time.

He told me to open the door. I did it as quietly as [ could.

4 combined forms

Auxiliary do and non-auxiliary do can occur together.

Do you do much gardening? How do you do?

The company didn't do very well last year.

159 do (2): auxiliary verb

The auxiliary verb do is followed by infinitives without to. It has several uses.

1 questions

We use do to make questions with ordinary verbs, but not with other auxiliary verbs (see 480). Compare:

Do you like football? (NOT Like you football?)

Can you play football? (NOT Do you can play football?)

The auxiliary do can make questions with the ordinary verb do.

What do you do in the evenings?

2 negatives

We use do to make negative clauses with ordinary verbs (including the ordinary verb do), but not with other auxiliary verbs (see 367).

I don't like football. (NOT I like not football.)

Don't go. I don't do much in the evenings.

BUT I can't play football. (NOT I don't can play football.)

3 emphasis

We can use do in an affirmative clause for emphasis (see 184).

Do sit down. You do look nice today!

She thinks I don't love her, but I do love her.

I don't do much sport now, but I did play football when I was younger.

4 inversion

Do is used in some inversion (verb before subject) structures (see 302).

At no time did he lose his self-control.

5 ellipsis

In cases where an auxiliary is used instead of a whole verb phrase (see 181), do is common in affirmative clauses as well as questions and negatives.

She doesn't like dancing, but I do. (= ... but I like dancing.)

You saw Alan, didn't you?

That meat smells funny. ~ Yes, it does, doesn't it?

Ann thinks there's something wrong with Bill, and so do I.

For do with be, see 90.

For weak pronunciations of do and does, see 616.

For do in short answers, see 517.

160 do (3): general-purpose verb; do and make

The general-purpose verb do has several uses, and can sometimes be confused with make.

1 do for indefinite activities

We use do when we do not say exactly what activity we are talking about - for example with words like thing, something, nothing, anything, what.

Then he did a very strange thing. (NOT Then he made a very strange thing.)

Do something!

I like doing nothing. (NOT ... making nothing)

What shall we do?

2 do for work

We use do when we talk about work and jobs.

I'm not going to do any work today.   Could you do the shopping for me?

It's time to do the accounts.   I wouldn't like to do your job.

I did (= studied) French and German at school.

Has Ben done his homework?

Could you do the ironing first, and then do the windows if you've got time?

3 do .. .ing

We use do in the informal structure do ... ing, to talk about activities that take a certain time, or are repeated (for example jobs and hobbies). There is usually a determiner (e.g. the, my, some, much) before the -ing form.

During the holidays I'm going to do some walking and a lot of reading.

Let your fingers do the walking. (advertisement for telephone shopping)

Note that the verb after do cannot have an object in this structure.

I'm going to watch some TV. (NOT I'm going to do some watching TV)

But do can be used with a compound noun that includes verb + object.

I want to do some bird-watching this weekend.

It's time I did some letter-writing.

4 make for constructing, creating etc

We often use make to talk about constructing, building, creating etc.

I've just made a cake. Let's make a plan.

My father and I once made a boat.

5 do instead of make

We sometimes use do in place of make, to sound casual about a creative activity - as if we are not claiming to produce any very special results.

What shall we eat?~ Well, I could do an omelette.

6 common fixed expressions

do good, harm, business, one's best, a favour, sport, exercise, one's hair, one's teeth, one's duty, 50 mph

make a journey, an offer, arrangements, a suggestion, a decision, an attempt, an effort, an excuse, an exception, a mistake, a noise, a phone call, money, a profit, a fortune, love, peace, war, a bed, a fire, progress

Note that we say make a bed, but we often talk about doing the bed(s) as part of housework. Compare:

He's old enough to make his own bed now.

I'll start on the vegetables as soon as I've done the beds.

We use take, not make, in take a photo, and have, not make, in have an (interesting) experience.

For information about sentence structures with make, see 335.

161 do (4): substitute verb

auxiliary verb + do

In British English (but not American), do can be used alone as a substitute verb after an auxiliary verb.

Come and stay with us. ~ I may (do), if I have the time. (AmE I may, if ... OR I may come, if ... )

He's supposed to have locked the safe.~ He has (done). (AmE He has. OR He has locked it.)

I found myself thinking of her as I had never done before.

He didn't pass his exam, but he could have (done) if he'd tried harder.

He smokes more than he used to (do).

Progressive forms are possible, but not very common.

You should be getting dressed. - I am (doing).

Note that the auxiliary verb is stressed in this structure.

Close the door. - I HAVE done. (NOT ... I have DONE.)

For auxiliary verbs used instead of complete verb phrases, see 181.

162 do so/it/that

1 do so

The expression do so can be used to avoid repeating a verb and its object or complement. It is usually rather formal.

Put the car away, please. ~ I've already done so.

Eventually she divorced Stephen. It was a pity she had not done so earlier.

He told me to get out, and I did so as quietly as possible.

2 do so and do it/that

Do it and do that can be used instead of do so.

I promised to get the tickets, and I will do so/it as soon as possible.

She rode a camel: she had never done so/that before.

We use do so mainly to refer to the same action, with the same subject, that was mentioned before. In other cases we prefer do it/that or do alone.

I haven't got time to get the tickets. Who's going to do it? (NOT ... Who's going to do so?)

I rode a camel in Morocco. ~ I'd love to do that. (NOT to do so.)

I always eat peas with honey. My wife never does. (NOT My wife never does so.)

3 do so/it/that: deliberate actions

Do so/it/that are mainly used to refer to deliberate dynamic actions. We do not usually use these expressions to replace verbs like fall, lose, like, remember, think, own, which refer to involuntary actions or states.

I like the saxophone, and I always have (done). (NOT ... and I have always done so/it/that.)

She lost her money. I wasn't surprised that she did. (NOT ... that she did so/it/that.)

I think lake's wrong. I did when he first spoke to me. (NOT ... I did so/it/that when ... )

4 other verbs

Note that so, it and that are not normally used in this way after auxiliary verbs. It is not possible in standard English to say I can so, She was it or I have that.

For so I am, so it is etc, see 541.2.

For so do I, so am I etc, see 541.1.

For so with say and tell, see 540.

For so with think, believe, hope and similar verbs, see 539.

For auxiliary do as substitute for a whole verb phrase, see 181.

For differences between it and that, see 590.

163 doubt

Clauses after the verb doubt can be introduced by whether, if or that.

Economists doubt whether interest rates will fall in the near future.

I doubt if she'll come this evening.

The directors doubt that new machinery is really necessary.

In an informal style, people sometimes use no conjunction.

I doubt we'll have enough money for a holiday.

After negative forms of doubt, we normally use that or no conjunction.

I don't doubt (that) there will be more problems.

For no doubt meaning 'probably', see 377.

164 dress

1 noun

The countable noun dress means an article of women's clothing (it goes from the shoulders to below the hips).

This is the first time I've seen you wearing a dress.

There is also an uncountable noun dress (not used with the article a/an). It means 'clothing', 'clothes'. It is not very common in modern English, and is used mostly to talk about special kinds of clothing (for example national dress, evening dress, battledress).

He looks good in evening dress. (Nor ... in an evening dress.)

2 verb: putting clothes on

The verb dress can be used to talk about putting clothes on oneself or somebody else. Undress is used for taking clothes off.

It only takes me five minutes to dress in the morning.

Could you dress the children for me?

I'm going to undress in front of the fire.

In informal English, we use get dressed/undressed to talk about dressing or undressing oneself.

Get dressed and come downstairs at once!

Put on and take off are generally used when clothes are mentioned.

I put on a sweater, but it was so warm that I had to take it off again.

Can you take John's boots off for him?

3 verb: wearing clothes

To say what somebody is/was wearing on a particular occasion, we can use the form be dressed in (note the preposition).

I didn't recognise him because he was dressed in a dark suit. (NOT ... dressed with ... OR ... dressing in ... )

She was dressed in orange pyjamas.

Be wearing and have on (especially AmE) are also very common.

She was wearing orange pyjamas.

She had on orange pajamas. (AmE)

The active form dress (in) can be used to give the idea of repetition or habit.

She always dresses in green. He dresses well.

Nate also the expression well dressed

165 drown

Both active and passive forms of drown are common when we talk about accidental drowning.

He (was) drowned while trying to swim across a river.

166 due to and owing to

Due to and owing to are similar to 'because of'. Due to is more common than owing to.

Phrases beginning due/owing to are often separated from the rest of their sentence by a comma.

Due/Owing to the bad weather(,) the match was cancelled.

We have had to postpone the meeting(,) due/owing to the strike.

Some people believe it is incorrect to use due to at the beginning of a clause in this way, but the structure is common in educated usage.

Due to can also follow the verb be. Owing to is not usually used like this.

His success was due to his mother. (NOT ... was owing to his mother.)

167 during and for

During is used to say when something happens; for is used to say how long it lasts. Compare:

- My father was in hospital during the summer.

My father was in hospital for six weeks. (NOT ... during six weeks.)

- It rained during the night for two or three hours.

I'll call in and see you for a few minutes during the afternoon.

For during and in, see 168.

For for, since, in and from, see 208.

168 during and in

We use both during and in to say that something happens inside a particular period of time.

We'll be on holiday during/in August. I woke up during/in the night.

We use during to stress that we are talking about the whole of the period.

The shop's closed during the whole of August. (NOT ... in the whole of August.)

And we use during when we are talking about an event, activity or experience (not a period of time).

He had some strange experiences during his military service. (NOT ... in his military service.)

I'll try to phone you during the meeting. (NOT ... in the meeting.)

I met them during my stay in China

169 each

1 each + singular

Each is a determiner (see 154). We use it before a singular noun.

I enjoy each moment. (NOT ... each moments.)

A following verb is also singular.

Each new day is different. (NOT ... are different.)

2 each of

We use each of before a plural pronoun, or before a determiner (for example the, my, these - see 154) with a plural noun.

Each of us sees the world differently.

I write to each of my children once a week.

A following verb is normally singular.

Each of them has problems.

3 pronouns

When a pronoun or possessive is used later in a clause to refer back to each (of) + noun/pronoun, the later word can be singular (more formal) or plural (less formal).

Each girl wore what she liked best. (more formal)

Each student wore what they liked best. (less formal)

Each of them explained it in his/her/their own way.

4 position with object

Each can follow an object (direct or indirect), but does not normally come at the end of a clause.

She kissed them each on the forehead. (BUT NOT She kissed them each.)

I want them each to make their own decision.

I sent the secretaries each a Christmas card.

However, each can come at the end of a clause in expressions referring to amounts and quantities.

They cost £3.50 each. I bought the girls two ice-creams each.

5 without a noun

We can drop a noun after each, if the meaning is clear. However, each one or each of them is more common in an informal style.

I've got five brothers, and each (one/of them) is different.

6 with the verb

When each refers to the subject, it can also go with a verb in mid-position, like some adverbs (for details of word order, see 24). In this case plural nouns, pronouns and verbs are used.

They have each been told.

We can each apply for our own membership card.

You are each right in a different way.

The plans each have certain advantages and disadvantages.

For the difference between each and every, see 170.

170 each and every: the difference

1 each with two or more; every with three or more

Each and every are both normally used with singular nouns. Each can be used to talk about two or more people or things; every is normally used to talk about three or more.

The business makes less money each/every year. (NOT ... each/every years.)

She had a child holding on to each hand. (NOT ... every hand.)

For expressions like every two years, every three steps, see 532.8.

2 meaning

Each and every can often be used without much difference of meaning.

You look more beautiful each/every time I see you.

But we prefer each when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. And every is more common when we are thinking of people or things together, in a group. (Every is closer to all.) So we are more likely to say:

Each person in turn went to see the doctor.

but

Every patient came from the same small village.

3 structures

We do not use each with words and expressions like almost, practically, nearly or without exception, which stress the idea of a whole group.

She's lost nearly every friend she had. (NOT ... nearly each friend ... )

Each can be used in some structures where every is impossible.

They each said what they thought. (BUT NOT They every... )

Each of them spoke for five minutes. (BUT NOT Every of them ... )

For more details, see 169 (each) and 193 (every).

171 each other and one another

1 no difference

Each other and one another mean the same.

Ann and I write to each other / one another every week.

Each other is more common than one another, especially in an informal style.

2 not used as subject

Each other and one another are not normally used as subjects (though this occasionally happens in subordinate clauses in very informal speech).

They each listened carefully to what the other said. (NOT USUALLY They listened carefully to what each other said.)

3 each other's / one another's

Both expressions have possessive forms.

They'll sit for hours looking into each other's / one another's eyes

4 -selves and each other / one another

Note the difference between -selves and each other / one another. Compare:

John and Mary are strange: they talk to themselves a lot. (John talks to John; Mary talks to Mary.)

Susan and Peter talk to each other on the phone every day. (Susan talks to Peter; Peter talks to Susan.)

5 words used without each other / one another

We do not normally use each other / one another after words like meet or marry, where the verb itself makes the meaning clear.

They met in 1992 and married in 1994.

172 east and eastern, north and northern etc

1 adjectives: the difference

We often prefer eastern, northern etc when we are talking about vague, indefinite or larger areas, and east, north etc for more clearly defined places (e.g. the names of countries or states). Compare:

- the northern part of the country    - southern Africa (an area)

the north side of the house    South Africa (a country)

- the southern counties of Britain    - the northern United States

the south coast    North Carolina

However, place names do not always follow this rule. Note the following:

Northern Ireland    North/East/West Africa    North/South America

East/South etc Asia BUT: Western/Eastern etc Europe

South Australia BUT: Western Australia; the Northern Territory

the North/South Atlantic/Pacific

the Northern/Southern hemisphere

2 'belonging to'

We use eastern, northern etc to mean 'belonging to' or 'typical of'.

a southern accent    a group of northern poets

3 capital letters

Capital letters are used at the beginning of East, Eastern, North, Northern etc when these come in official or well-established place names.

North Carolina   Western Australia t  he Far East

unemployment in the North (place name meaning 'the North of England')

In other cases, adjectives, nouns and adverbs begin with small letters.

We spent the winter in southern California.

I live in north London. There's a strong north wind.

The sun rises in the east. By sunrise we were driving south.

4 prepositions

Note the difference between in the east etc of ... and to the east etc of ...

I live in the east of Scotland.

Denmark is about 500 km to the east of Scotland

173 efficient and effective

If somebody/something is efficient, he/she/it works in a well-organised way without wasting time or energy.

He's not very efficient: he keeps filing letters in the wrong place, he works very slowly, and he keeps forgetting things.

The postal service is even less efficient than the telephone system.

If something is effective, it has the right effect: it solves a problem or gets a result.

My headache's much better. Those tablets really are effective.

I think a wide black belt would look very effective with that dress.

174 either: determiner

1 either + singular

We use either with a singular noun to mean 'one or the other' of two.

Come on Tuesday or Thursday. Either day is OK (NOT Either days ... )

She didn't get on with either parent. (NOT ... either parents)

2 either of

We use either of before a determiner (for example the, my, these - see 154) or a pronoun. A following noun is plural.

You can use either of the bathrooms.

I don't like either of my maths teachers.

I don't like either of them.

A verb after either of is more often singular, but it can sometimes be plural in an informal style.

Either of the children is perfectly capable of looking after the baby.

She just doesn't care what either of her parents say(s).

3 without a noun

We can use either alone if the meaning is clear.

Would you like tea or coffee? ~ I don't mind. Either.

4 pronouns

When a pronoun is used later in a clause to refer back to either + noun/pronoun, the later pronoun can be singular (more formal) or plural (more informal).

If either of the boys phones, tell him/them I'll be in this evening.

5 either side/end

In these expressions, either sometimes means 'each'.

There are roses on either side of the door.

6 pronunciation

Either is pronounced /'aɪðə(r)/ or /'i:ðə(r)/ (in American English usually /'i:ðər/).

For either ... or, see 175.

For not ... either, neither and nor, see 374

175 either ... or

We use either ... or to talk about a choice between two possibilities (and sometimes more than two).

I don't speak either French or German.

You can either come with me now or walk home.

If you want ice-cream there's either raspberry, lemon or vanilla.

We often balance this structure, so that the same kind of words or expressions follow either and or.

You can have either tea or coffee. (nouns)

He's either in London or in New York. (prepositional expressions)

Either you'll leave this house or I'll call the police. (clauses)

However, unbalanced sentences with either ... or are common. Some people prefer to avoid them.

You can either have tea or coffee.

He's either in London or New York.

You'll either leave this house or I'll call the police.

For either as a determiner, see 174.

For pronunciation, see 174.5.

For not ... either, neither and nor, see 374.

176 elder and eldest

Elder and eldest can be used instead of older and oldest to talk about the order of birth of the members of a family. They are only used attributively (before nouns). Compare:

- My elder/older brother has just got married.

He's three years older than me. (NOT ... elder than me.)

- His eldest/oldest daughter is a medical student.

She's the oldest student in her year.

Elder brother/sister are used when a person has only one brother/sister who is older; eldest is used when there are more. An elder son/daughter is the older of two; an eldest son/daughter is the oldest of two or more.

177 ellipsis (1): introduction

We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other cases when the meaning can be understood without them. This is called 'ellipsis'.

1 replies

In replies we usually avoid repeating information that has just been given.

What time are you coming? ~ About ten. (More natural than I'm coming about ten.)

Who said that? ~ John. (More natural than John said that.)

How many chairs do you need? ~ Three. (More natural than I need three chairs. )

She's out this evening? ~ Yes, working. (More natural than Yes, she's working this evening.)

2 structures with and, but and or

Repeated words are often dropped in co-ordinate structures (see 178).

a knife and fork (= a knife and a fork)

She was poor but honest. (= ... but she was honest.)

3 at the beginning of a sentence

In informal speech, unstressed words are often dropped at the beginning of a sentence, if the meaning is clear. For details, see 179.

Seen Lucy? (= Have you seen Lucy?)

Doesn't know what she's talking about. (= She doesn't ... )

4 at the end of a noun phrase

It is sometimes possible to drop nouns after adjectives, noun modifiers and/or determiners. For details, see 180.

Do you want large eggs? ~ No, I'll have small. (= small eggs.)

My car isn't working. I'll have to use Mary's. (= Mary's car.)

We're going to hear the London Philharmonic tonight. (= ... the London Philharmonic Orchestra.)

Which shoes are you going to wear? ~ These. (= These shoes.)

5 at the end of a verb phrase

Auxiliary verbs are often used alone instead of full verbs. For details, see 181.

I haven't paid. ~I haven't either. (= ... I haven't paid either.)

She said she'd phone, but she didn't. (= ... didn't phone.)

This type of ellipsis can include words that follow the verb phrase.

I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can't. (= ... I can't go to Paris next week.)

The same structures are possible with non-auxiliary be and have.

I thought she would be angry, and she was.

He says he hasn't any friends, but I know he has.

6 infinitives

We can use to instead of repeating a whole infinitive. For details, see 182.

Are you and Gillian getting married? ~ We hope to. (= We hope to get married.)

I don't dance much now, but I used to a lot.

Sometimes a whole infinitive, including to, is left out.

Come when you want. (= ... when you want to come.)

Have a good time. ~ I'll try. (= I'll try to have a good time.)

7 comparative structures with as and than

We can leave out words after as and than, if the meaning is clear.

The weather isn't as good as last year. (= as it was last year.)

I found more blackberries than you. (= than you found.)

For missing subject or object after as and than (e.g. as was expected), see 581.

8 question-word clauses

Clauses can be dropped after question words.

Somebody's been stealing our flowers, but I don't know who. (= ... I don't know who's been stealing our flowers.)

Become a successful writer. This book shows you how.

9 that and relative pronouns

In an informal style, the conjunction that is often dropped (see 584); object relative pronouns can also be dropped (see 495.4).

I knew (that) she didn't want to help me.

This is the restaurant (which) I was talking about.

10 reduced relative structures: the tickets available etc

We can sometimes leave out a relative pronoun and the verb be before participles or adjectives such as available, possible. For details, see 498.10.

Who's the girl dancing with your brother? (= who is dancing ... )

Please let me have all the tickets available. (= that are available.)

11 be after conjunctions

Subject pronouns with forms of be can be left out after certain conjunctions, especially in a formal style.

Start when ready. (= ... when you are ready.)

Though intelligent, he was very poorly educated. (= Though he was intelligent ... )

When ordering, please send £1.50 for postage and packing.

Phone me if (it is) necessary. He had a small heart attack while asleep.

I'm enclosing my cheque for £50, as agreed. Leave in oven until cooked.

12 prepositions

In an informal style, prepositions can be dropped in a few time expressions (see 451).

See you (on) Monday night.

We're staying here (for) another three months.

What time shall I come? (More natural than At what time ... ?)

For cases like We need a place to live (in), see 431.

13 pronouns after prepositions

In British English, pronoun objects can sometimes be dropped after prepositions. This happens, for example, when have or with are used in descriptive structures.

My socks have got holes in (them).

I'd like a piece of toast with butter on (it).

14 abbreviated styles

In certain styles, many or all non-essential words can be dropped. For details, see 1.

Take 500g butter and place in small saucepan.

Single man looking for flat Oxford area.

WOMAN WALKS ON MOON

178 ellipsis (2): with and, but and or

1 various kinds of word left out

When expressions are joined by and, but or or, we often leave out repeated words or phrases of various kinds.

a knife and (a) fork    antique (furniture) or modern furniture

these men and (these) women    in France, (in) Germany or (in) Spain

ripe apples and (ripe) pears    She can read, but (she) can't write.

The Minister likes golf but (the Minister) hates fishing.

We drove (across America), rode (across America), flew (across America) and walked across America.

She was poor but (she was) honest.

The food (is ready) and the drinks are ready.

Phil (washed the dishes) and Sally washed the dishes.

We can sometimes drop a verb that is repeated in a different form.

I have always paid my bills and I always will (pay ... ).

2 word order

Note that when two verbs, objects etc are the same, it is not always the second that is left out. We may have to leave out the first to avoid confusion, or to produce a simpler word order and sentence structure.

Cats (catch mice) and dogs catch mice. (NOT Cats catch mice and dogs.)

I can (go) and will go.

In informal speech and writing, ellipsis does not usually interrupt the normal word order of a clause or sentence. Sentences like the following are typical of a more formal style.

Peter planned and Jane paid for the holiday. (Less formal: Peter planned the holiday and Jane paid for it.)

Kevin likes dancing and Annie athletics. (Less formal: Kevin likes dancing and Annie likes athletics.)

The children will carry the small boxes and the adults the large ones.

Jane went to Greece and Alice to Rome.

You seem, and she certainly is, ill.

3 other conjunctions

Ellipsis is not normally possible after other conjunctions besides and, but and or.

She didn't know where she was when she woke up. (NOT ... when woke up.)

However, ellipsis of subject pronouns with forms of be is possible in some cases (e.g. if possible, when arriving). See 261.6, 73.4, 411.6.

4 (and) then

In an informal style, ellipsis is sometimes possible after then, even if and is dropped.

Peter started first, (and) then Colin (started).

For singular or plural verbs after expressions with and or or, see 532.2.

For singular and plural verbs with neither ... nor, see 373.

179 ellipsis (3): at the beginning of a sentence

1 words that can be left out

In informal spoken English we often leave out unstressed words at the beginning of a sentence if the meaning is clear without them. Words that can be left out include articles (the, a/an), possessives (my, your etc), personal pronouns (I, you etc), auxiliary verbs (am, have etc) and the preparatory subject there.

Car's running badly. (= The car's ...)

Wife's on holiday. (= My wife's )

Couldn't understand a word. (= I couldn't ... )

Must dash. (= I must dash.)

Won't work, you know. (= It won't work ... )

Seen Joe? (= Have you seen Joe?)

Keeping well, I hope? (= You're keeping well ... )

Nobody at home. (= There's nobody at home.)

Careful what you say. (= Be careful ... )

Be four pounds fifty. (= That'll be ... )

This structure is common in advertisements. Two real examples:

Thinking of postgraduate study? Call for a place now. (= Are you thinking ... ?)

Speak a foreign language? Speak it better. (= Do you speak ... ?)

2 unstressed forms of be, will, would, have

We do not usually drop words so as to begin sentences with unstressed forms of be, will, would or auxiliary have (though this sometimes happens in postcards, diary entries and other kinds of very informal writing).

I'm coming tomorrow. OR Coming tomorrow. (BUT NOT Am coming tomorrow. Am is not stressed.)

I'll see you soon. OR See you soon. (BUT NOT Will see you soon. Will is not stressed.)

Haven't seen him. (BUT NOT Have seen him. Have is not stressed.)

3 before pronouns: You ready?

Auxiliary verbs can be left out before personal pronouns except I and it.

You ready? (= Are you ready?)

She want something? (= Does she want something?)

(BUT NOT I late? It raining?)

4 Dutch, aren't you?

Ellipsis is very common in sentences that have some sort of tag (see 487-488, 514) on the end, especially in British English.

Can't swim, myself.   Like a cigar, I do.   Dutch, aren't you?

Getting in your way, am I?   Going on holiday, your kids?

180 ellipsis (4): in noun phrases

1 ellipsis after adjectives: boiled, please

A repeated noun can sometimes be dropped after an adjective, if the meaning is clear, especially when one is talking about common kinds of choice.

What kind of potatoes would you like? ~ Boiled (potatoes), please.

We haven't got any large eggs. Only small (eggs).

This often happens after superlatives.

I think I'll buy the cheapest.

Note that nouns are not normally dropped in other situations.

Poor little boy! (NOT Poor little!)

The most important thing is to keep calm. (NOT The most important is to ... )

For other structures in which adjectives are used without nouns, see 17.

2 ellipsis after this, numbers, possessives etc

Nouns can also be dropped after most determiners (see 154), if the meaning is clear.

This is Helen's coat, and that (coat) is mine.

This also happens after numbers, nouns with possessive's, own and (an)other.

I'm not sure how many packets I need, but I'll take two (packets) to start with.

Our train's the second (train) from this platform.

You take Pete's car, and I'll take Susie's (car).

Can I borrow your pen? ~ No, find your own (pen).

That beer went down fast. ~ Have another (beer).

3 well-known names

The last words of well-known names are often dropped.

She's playing the Beethoven with the London Philharmonic tomorrow night. (= ... the Beethoven violin concerto with the London Philharmonic Orchestra ...)

He's staying at the Hilton. (= ... the Hilton Hotel.)

We're going to see 'Hamlet' at the Mermaid. (= ... the Mermaid Theatre.)

When we talk about people's houses and shops, the words house and shop are often dropped (see 439.4).

We spent the weekend at John and Mary's.

Could you pick up some chops from the butcher's?

181 ellipsis (5): after auxiliary verbs

1 auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase

We can avoid repetition by using an auxiliary verb instead of a complete verb phrase, if the meaning is clear. The auxiliary verb usually has a 'strong' pronunciation (see 616), and contractions (see 143) are not normally used except in negatives.

Get up. ~ I am /æm/. (= I am getting up.)

He said he'd write, but he hasn't. (= ... hasn't written.)

I'll come and see you when I can. (= ... can come and see you.)

Shall I tell him what I think? ~ I wouldn't if I were you.

Do can be used before ellipsis if there is no other auxiliary to repeat.

I may come to London. I'll phone you if I do.

He said he would arrive before seven, and he did.

Other words, as well as the rest of the verb phrase, can be left out after the auxiliary.

I can't see you today, but I can tomorrow. (= ... I can see you ... )

I've forgotten the address. ~ I have too.

You're not trying very hard. ~I am.

You wouldn't have won if I hadn't helped you. ~ Yes, I would.

This also happens after non-auxiliary be and have.

I'm tired. ~ I am too.    Who's the driver?~ I am.

Who has a dictionary? ~ I have.

2 short answers etc: Yes, I have.

Ellipsis is used regularly in short answers (see 5171,reply questions (see 484) and question tags (see 487-488).

Have you finished? ~ Yes, I have.

I can whistle through my fingers. ~ Can you, dear?

You don't want to buy a car, do you?

3 so am I etc

Ellipsis also happens after so (see 541), neither and nor (see 374). Note the word order.

I've forgotten the address. ~ So have I.

She doesn't like olives, and neither do I.

4 ellipsis before complete form

Ellipsis normally happens when an expression is used for a second time, after the complete form has already been used once (see above examples).

However, it can sometimes happen the other way round. This is common in sentences beginning with if.

If you can, send me a postcard when you arrive.

If you could, I'd like you to help me this evening.

If you prefer, we can go tomorrow instead.

5 more than one auxiliary

When there is more than one auxiliary, ellipsis usually happens after the first.

You wouldn't have enjoyed the film. ~ Yes, I would. (= ... I would have enjoyed the film.)

However, more auxiliaries can be included. The first is stressed.

Could you have been dreaming? ~ I suppose I could / COULD have / COULD have been.

We often include a second auxiliary verb if it has not appeared before in the same form.

I think Mary should be told. ~ She has been. (More natural than ... She has.)

And we normally include a second auxiliary verb after a change of modal auxiliary.

Mary should be told. ~ She must be. (More natural than ... She must.)

6 substitution with do

In British English, a main verb that is left out after an auxiliary can be replaced by do. For details, see 16l.

Do you think he'll phone? ~ He might do. (AmE ... He might.)

For do so, see 162.

182 ellipsis (6): infinitives

1 to used instead of whole infinitive

We can use to instead of the whole infinitive of a repeated verb (and following words), if the meaning is clear.

Are you and Gillian getting married? ~ We hope to.

Let's go for a walk. ~ I don't want to.

I don't dance much now, but I used to a lot.

Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to.

Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. ~ I'll ask John to.

Be and have (used for possession) are not usually dropped.

There are more flowers than there used to be. (NOT ... than there used to.)

She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be. (NOT ... but she ought to.)

You've got more freckles than you used to have. (NOT You've got more freckles than you used to.)

2 ellipsis of whole infinitive

In some cases the whole infinitive can be left out. This happens after nouns and adjectives.

He'll never leave home; he hasn't got the courage (to).

You can't force him to leave home if he's not ready (to).

It also happens after verbs which can stand alone without a following infinitive.

Can you start the car?~ I'll try (to).

3 (would) like, want etc

We cannot usually leave out to after would like/ love/ hate/ prefer, want and choose.

Are you interested in going to University? ~ I'd like to. (NOT ... I'd like.)

My parents encouraged me to study art, but I didn't want to. (NOT ... I didn't want.)

However, to is often dropped after want, and almost always after like, when these are used after certain conjunctions - for instance when, if, what, as.

Come when you want (to).

I'll do what I like.   Stay as long as you like.

183 else

1 use

We use else to mean 'other' after: somebody, someone, something, somewhere; anybody, everybody, nobody etc; question words; whatever, whenever etc; little, much.

Would you like anything else?

I'm sorry. I mistook you for somebody else.

Where else did you go besides Madrid?

Whatever else he may be, he's not a mathematician.

We know when Shakespeare was born and when he died, but we don't know much else about his life.

In a formal style, else is sometimes used after all.

When all else fails, read the instructions.

2 word order

Note that else comes immediately after the word it modifies.

What else would you like? (NOT What would you like else?)

3 else's

Else has a possessive else's.

You're wearing somebody else's coat.

4 singular only

There is no plural structure with else.

I didn't see any other people. (NOT ... any else people.)

5 or else

Or else means 'otherwise', 'if not'.

Let's go, or else we'll miss the train.

Or else is sometimes used with no continuation, as a threat.

You'd better stop hitting my little brother, or else!

6 elsewhere

This is a formal word for somewhere else.

If you are not satisfied with my hospitality, go elsewhere.

184 emphasis

1 emotive and contrastive emphasis

We often emphasise ('strengthen') a particular word or expression. There are two main reasons for this. We may wish to show that we feel strongly about what we are saying ('emotive emphasis').

You do look nice today!

Your hair looks so good like that

Or we may wish to show a contrast between, for example, true and false, or present and past, or a rule and an exception ('contrastive emphasis').

Why weren't you at the meeting? ~ I was at the meeting.

I don't do much sport now, but I did play football when I was younger.

I don't see my family much, but I do visit my mother occasionally.

We can also use emphasis to show that something expected actually happened.

I thought I'd pass the exam, and I did pass.

2 pronunciation: stress

In speech, we can give words extra stress - make them sound 'stronger' - by pronouncing them louder and with a higher intonation (see 554).We may also make the vowel longer, and pause before a stressed word. Stress is reflected in printing by using italics or bold type, and in writing by using CAPITAL LETTERS or by underlining.

This is the last opportunity.

He lived in France, not Spain.

Mary, I'm IN LOVE! Please don't tell anybody!

Changes in stress can affect the meaning of a sentence. Compare:

Jane phoned me yesterday. (Not somebody else.)

Jane phoned me yesterday. (She didn't come to see me.)

Jane phoned me yesterday. (She didn't phone you.)

Jane phoned me yesterday. (Not today.)

We often stress auxiliary verbs. This can make the whole sentence sound more emphatic, or can emphasise a contrast (see above). Most auxiliary verbs change their pronunciation when they are stressed (see 616).

You have grown!

I am telling the truth - you must believe me!

In emphatic sentences without auxiliary verbs we add do to carry stress.

Do sit down. She does like you.

If he does decide to come, let me know, will you?

With stressed auxiliary verbs, word order can change (see 24.9). Compare:

You have certainly grown. You certainly have grown!

3 vocabulary: special words

Words such as so, such, really and just can show emphasis.

Thank you so much. It was such a lovely party. I really enjoyed it.

I just LOVE the way she talks. (Note: love is stressed, not just.)

Swearwords (see 575) are often used for emphasis in an informal style.

That's a bloody good idea.

Question words can be emphasised by adding ever (see 624), on earth or the hell (very informal).

Why ever did he marry her?

What on earth is she doing here? Where the hell have you been?

4 structures

If we can move words to an unusual position, this usually gives them more importance. Words are often 'fronted' for this reason (see 513).

That film - what did you think of it? Asleep, then, were you?

I knew he was going to cause trouble, and cause trouble he did!

'Cleft' structures with it, what etc can be used to focus on particular parts of a sentence and give them extra importance (see 130-131).

It was John who paid for the drinks.

What I need is a good rest.

Do can be used to emphasise an affirmative verb (see above).

She does seem to be trying. Do come in.

Myself, yourself etc can be used to emphasise nouns (see 493).

I got a letter from the Managing Director himself.

Indeed can be used to emphasise very with an adjective or adverb (see 273).

I was very surprised indeed.

Very can emphasise superlatives, next, last, first and same (see 140.4).

I'd like a bottle of your very best wine.

The letter arrived on the very next day.

We were born in the very same street in the very same year.

Repetition can be used for emphasis (see 500.7).

She looks much, much older than she used to.

185 end and finish: verbs

1 both used

These verbs have similar meanings, and are often both possible.

What time does the concert end/finish?

Term ends/finishes on June 23.

2 completing an activity

When we talk about completing something that we are doing, we usually prefer finish.

She's always starting something new, but she never finishes anything.

You'll never finish that hamburger - it's too big for you.

Are you still writing letters? ~ No, I've finished.

3 changes

End is more common when there is an important change.

I decided it was time to end our affair.

It's time to end the uncertainty - the Prime Minister must speak out.

The Second World War ended in 1945.

We also prefer end to talk about a special way of bringing something to a close or 'shaping' the end of something.

How do you end a letter to somebody you don't know?

The ceremony ended with a speech from the President.

End is often used to talk about physical shapes.

The road ended in a building site. (NOT The road finished ... )

Nouns that end in -s have plurals in -es.

4 -ing forms

Finish, but not end, can be followed by an -ing form (see 296).

I finished teaching at 3.00. (NOT I ended teaching ... )

186 enjoy

Enjoy normally has an object.

Did you enjoy the party? ~ Yes, I enjoyed it very much. (NOT I enjoyed very much.)

To talk about having a good time, we can use enjoy myself/yourself etc.

I really enjoyed myself when I went to Rome.

We're going to Paris for the weekend. ~ Enjoy yourselves!

('Enjoy!' with no object is possible, especially in informal AmE.)

Enjoy can be followed by -ing.

I don't enjoy looking after small children. (NOT ... enjoy to look ... )

187 enough

1 adjective/adverb + enough

Enough usually follows adjectives and adverbs.

Is it warm enough for you? (NOT ... enough warm ... )

You're not driving fast enough.

2 enough + noun

Enough can also be used before a noun as a determiner.

Have you got enough milk? There aren't enough glasses.

Enough is occasionally used after a noun, but this is rare in modern English except in a few expressions.

If only we had time enough ...

I was fool enough to believe him.

3 position with adjective + noun

When enough modifies an adjective and noun together, it comes before the adjective. Compare:

We haven't got enough big nails. (= We need more big nails - enough modifies big nails.)

We haven't got big enough nails. (= We need bigger nails - enough modifies big.)

4 enough or enough of?

Before determiners (e.g. a, the, my, this, that) and pronouns, we use enough of.Compare:

- I don't know enough French to read this. (NOT ... enough of French ... )

I don't understand enough of the words in the letter.

- We haven't got enough blue paint. (NOT ... enough of blue paint.)

We haven't got enough of that blue paint.

- You didn't buy enough cards. (NOT ... enough of cards)

You didn't buy enough of them.

Note the idiomatic structure I've had enough of .... This can be followed by a noun without a determiner.

I've had enough of mathematics; I'm going to give it up.

She's had enough of England; she's going back home.

5 enough without a noun

Enough can be used alone without a noun to refer to an amount, if the meaning is clear.

Half a pound of carrots will be enough.

That's enough, thank you.

Enough is enough.

BUT NOT The meat is enough. (The meat is not an amount.)

6 enough + infinitive; structure with for

We can use an infinitive structure after enough.

She's old enough to do what she wants.

I haven't got enough money to buy a car.

Infinitives can be introduced by for + noun/pronoun.

It's late enough for the staff to stop work.

There was just enough light for us to see what we were doing.

7 It's small enough to put in your pocket, etc

The subject of the sentence can be the object of the following infinitive. (For more about this structure, see 284.4.) Object pronouns are not normally used after the infinitive in this case.

The radio's small enough to put in your pocket. (NOT ... to put it in your pocket.)

Those tomatoes aren't ripe enough to eat. (NOT ... to eat them.)

However, object pronouns are possible in structures with for.

The radio was small enough for me to put (it) in my pocket.

Those tomatoes aren't ripe enough for the children to eat (them).

For other examples of for + object + infinitive, see 291.

For similar structures with too and too much/many, see 595-596.

8 the = enough; leaving out enough

The article the can be used to mean 'enough'.

I hardly had the strength to take my clothes off.

I didn't quite have the money to pay for a meal.

Time and room are often used to mean 'enough time' and 'enough room'.

Have you got time to look at this letter? .

There isn't room for everybody to sit down.

188 especial(ly) and special(ly)

1 especially and specially

Especially and specially can often both be used with the same meaning.

It was not (e)specially cold.

2 especially meaning 'above all'

Especially is often used to mean 'above all'.

We play a lot of tennis, especially on Sundays.

The children are very noisy, especially when we have visitors.

I like all kinds of fruit, especially apples.

Especially follows a subject.

All my family like music. My father, especially, goes to as many concerts as he can. (NOT ... Especially my father goes ... )

3 especially before prepositions and conjunctions

We prefer especially before prepositions and conjunctions.

We go skiing quite a lot, especially in February.

I drink a lot of coffee, especially when I'm working.

4 specially with past participles

Specially is used with a past participle to mean 'for a particular purpose'.

These shoes were specially made for me.

The song was specially written for his birthday.

5 especial and special

The adjective especial is rare. We normally use special.

He took special trouble over his work.

189 even

1 meaning

Even suggests the idea of a surprising extreme: 'more than we expect'; not even suggests 'less than we expect'.

She's rude to everybody. She's even rude to the police.

He can't even write his own name.

2 position

Even most often goes with the verb, in mid-position (see 24).

She has broken all her toys. She has even broken her bike. (NOT Even she has broken ... )

He speaks lots of languages. He even speaks Esperanto.

They're open every day. They're even open on Christmas Day.

Even goes at the beginning of a clause when it refers just to the subject; and it can go just before other words and expressions that we want to emphasise.

Anybody can do this. Even a child can do it.

I work every day, even on Sundays.

I haven't written to anybody for months - not even my parents.

3 even and also

Also (see 46) is not used to talk about surprising extremes.

Everybody helped with the packing - even the dog. (NOT ... also the dog.)

4 even if and even though

Even is not used as a conjunction, but we can use even before if and though.

Even if I become a millionaire, I shall always be a socialist. (NOT ... Even I become ... )

Even though I didn't know anybody at the party, I had a nice time. (NOT Even although ... )

I wouldn't marry you even if you were the last man in the world.

We sometimes use if to mean even if

I'll do it if it kills me. (= ... even if it kills me.)

5 even so; even now

Even so means 'however', 'in spite of that'.

He seems nice. Even so, I don't really trust him. (NOT ... Even though, I don't really trust him.)

Even now can mean 'in spite of everything that has happened'.

He left her ten years ago, but even now she still loves him.

190 eventual(ly)

Eventual and eventually mean 'final(ly)', 'in the end', 'after all that'. We use them to say that something happens after a long time or a lot of effort.

The chess game lasted for three days. Androv was the eventual winner.

The car didn't want to start, but eventually I got it going.

We use at last (see 204), not eventually, to give news.

Steve has found a job at last! (NOT Steve has eventually found a job!)

Eventual and eventually are 'false friends' for people who speak some languages. They do not mean the same as, for instance, French éventuel or éventuellement, and are not used to express the idea of possibility. For this meaning we use possible, perhaps, if, may, might etc.

In our new house I'd like to have a spare bedroom for possible visitors. (NOT ... eventual visitors.)

I'm not sure what I'll do next year. I might go to America if I can find a job. (NOT ... Eventually I'll go to America ... )

191 ever

1 ever meaning 'at any time'

Ever is a 'non-affirmative word' (see 381). It is used especially in questions to mean 'at any time'. Compare:

Do you ever go to Ireland on holiday? (= at any time)

We always go to Ireland on holiday. (= every time)

We never have holidays in England. (= at no time)

Ever is possible in negative clauses, but never is more usual than not ever.

I don't ever want to see you again. (OR I never want ... )

We also use ever after if, and with words that express a negative idea (like nobody, hardly or stop).

Come and see us if you are ever in Manchester.

Nobody ever visits them. I hardly ever see my sister.

I'm going to stop her ever doing that again.

2 with comparatives, superlatives, as and only

Ever is used in affirmative clauses in comparisons and with only.

You're looking lovelier than ever.

What is the best book you've ever read?

It's the largest picture ever painted.

He's as charming as ever.

She's the only woman ever to have climbed Everest in winter.

3 ever + perfect

Ever is often used with perfect tenses (see 455,423) to mean 'at any time up to now/then'.

Have you ever been to Greece?

Had you ever thought of getting married before you met June?

4 ever and before; ever before

Ever and before can both be used to mean 'at any time in the past', but there is a difference. Before (or ever before) refers to a present event, and asks whether it has happened at another time.

Have you (ever) been to Scotland before? (The hearer is probably in Scotland.)

Ever (without before) does not refer to a present event.

Have you ever been to Africa? (The hearer is not in Africa.)

5 ever meaning 'always'

Ever is not normally used to mean 'always'.

I shall always remember you. (NOT I shall ever remember you.)

But ever is sometimes used to mean 'always' in compound expressions with adjectives and participles.

his ever-open mouth   an ever-increasing debt

evergreen trees   his ever-loving wife

Ever also means 'always' in forever (or for ever) and ever since, and in a few other expressions like ever after and Yours ever (used at the end of letters).

I shall love you forever.   I've loved you ever since I met you.

For who ever, what ever etc, see 624.

For whoever, whatever etc, see 625.

For forever with progressive forms, see 472.

192 ever so, ever such

These expressions are often used in informal British English to mean 'very'.

She's ever so nice.   It's ever such a good film.

For the difference between so and such, see 569.

193 every (one)

1 every + singular

Every is a determiner (see 154).We normally use it before a singular noun (but see paragraph 6). If the noun is a subject, its verb is also singular.

every + singular noun (+ singular verb)

I see her every day. (NOT ... every days.)

Every room is being used. (NOT Every room are ... )

2 every one of

We use every one of before a pronoun or a determiner (for example the, my, these - see 154). The pronoun or noun is plural, but a following verb is singular.

every one of us/you/them (+ singular verb)
everyone of + determiner + plural noun (+ singular verb)

His books are wonderful. I've read every one of them.

Every one of the children was crying.

3 every one without a noun

We can drop a noun and use every one alone, if the meaning is clear.

His books are great. Every one's worth reading.

4 negative structures

To negate every, we normally use not every.

Not every kind of bird can fly. (More natural than Every kind of bird cannot fly.)

5 pronouns and possessives

When a pronoun or possessive is used later in a clause to refer back to every (one), the later word can usually be either singular (more formal) or plural (less formal).

Every person made his/her own travel arrangements.

Every person made their own travel arrangements.

I told every single student what I thought of him/her/them.

But if we are talking about something that concerns every member of a group at the same time, a plural word is necessary.

When every passenger's ticket had been checked, the door opened and they all got on. (NOT ... and he/she all got on.)

6 every + plural noun

Every is used before a plural noun in expressions that refer to intervals.

I see her every few days. There's a meeting every six weeks.

She had to stop and rest every two or three steps.

7 everybody etc

Everybody, everyone, everything and everywhere are used with singular verbs, like every.

Everybody has gone home. (NOT Everybody have ... )

Everything I like is either illegal, immoral or fattening.

I found that everywhere was booked up.

When possessives and pronouns refer back to everybody/one, they can usually be either singular (more formal) or plural (less formal). Sometimes only a plural word makes sense. Compare:

Has everybody got his or her ticket? (more formal)

Has everybody got their tickets? (less formal)

When everybody had finished eating, the waiters took away their plates. (NOT ... his or her plate.)

Note that everyone (= 'everybody') does not mean the same as every one (which can refer to things as well as people - see paragraph 2 above).

8 everyday

Everyday is an adjective meaning 'ordinary', 'usual', 'routine'. It is not the same as the adverbial expression every day. Compare:

In everyday life, you don't often find an elephant in a supermarket.

You don't see elephants every day.

9 common expressions

Note the following common expressions with every.

every single

She visits her mother every single day.

every other

We meet every other Tuesday. (= ... every second Tuesday.)

every so often; every now and then

We go out for a drink together every so often / every now and then.

For the difference between every and each, see 170.

For every and all, see 39. For every and any, see 56.

For more information about everybody/ everyone, see 548.

194 except and except for

1 except for before nouns

We generally use except for before noun phrases.

I've cleaned the house except for the bathroom.

The garden was empty except for one small bird.

2 except (for) after all, any etc

After generalising words like all, any, every, no, everything, anybody, nowhere, nobody, whole, we often leave out for.

I've cleaned all the rooms except (for) the bathroom.

He ate everything on his plate except (for) the beans.

Nobody came except (for) John and Mary.

But this does not happen before all, etc.

Except for John and Mary, nobody came. (NOT Except John and Mary, nobody came.)

3 except before prepositions and conjunctions

We use except, not except for, before prepositions and conjunctions.

It's the same everywhere except in Scotland. (NOT ... except for in Scotland.)

He's good-looking except when he smiles.

This room is no use except as a storeroom.

The holiday was nice except that there wasn't enough snow.

4 except (for) + pronoun

After except (for) we use object pronouns, not subject pronouns.

Everybody understood except (for) me. (NOT ... except I.)

We're all ready except (for) her.

5 except + verb: he does nothing except eat

A common structure is do ... except + infinitive without to.

He does nothing except eat all day.

I'll do everything for you except cook.

In other cases an -ing form is usually necessary.

She's not interested in anything except skiing.

You needn't worry about anything except having a great time.

6 except and without

Except (for) is only used to talk about exceptions to generalisations. In other cases, without or but for may be better. Compare:

Nobody helped me except you.

Without / But for your help, I would have failed. (NOT Except for your help, I would have failed.)

For the use of but to mean 'except', see 116.

For the difference between except, besides and apart from, see 102.

195 exclamations: structures

Exclamations are often constructed with how and what or with so and such; negative question forms are also common.

1 exclamations with how

These are often felt to be a little formal or old-fashioned.

how + adjective

Strawberries! How nice!

how + adjective/adverb + subject + verb

How cold it is! (NOT How it is cold!)

How beautifully you sing! (NOT How you sing beautifully!)

how + subject + verb

How you've grown!

For the structure of expressions like How strange a remark, see 14.

2 exclamations with what

what a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

What a rude man! (NOT What rude man!)

What a nice dress! (NOT What nice dress!)

What a surprise!

what (+ adjective) + uncountable/plural noun

What beautiful weather! (NOT What a beautiful weather!)

What lovely flowers!

What fools!

what + object + subject + verb (note word order)

What a beautiful smile your sister has! (NOT ... has your sister!)

3 exclamations with so and such

so + adjective

You're so kind!

such a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

He's such a nice boy! (NOT ... a such nice boy!)

such (+ adjective) + uncountable/plural noun

They talk such rubbish! (NOT ... such a rubbish!)

They're such kind people! (NOT ... so kind people!)

For more information about such and so, see 569.

4 negative question forms

Isn't the weather nice!   Hasn't she grown!

Americans and some British speakers may use ordinary (non-negative) question forms in exclamations.

Boy, am I hungry!

Wow, did she make a mistake!

Was I furious!

For more information about negative questions, see 368.

196 expect, hope, wait and look forward

1 expect and hope: difference of meaning

Expecting is mental rather than emotional. If I expect something to happen, I have a good reason to think it will in fact happen. Hoping is more emotional. If I hope for something to happen, I would like it to happen, but I do not know whether it will. Compare:

- I'm expecting John to phone at three o'clock.

I hope he's got some good news.

- Lucy's expecting a baby. (= She's pregnant.)

She's hoping it will be a girl.

One can expect good or bad things, but one only hopes for things that one wants.

I expect it will rain at the weekend. But I hope it won't.

2 expect and wait: difference of meaning

One waits when somebody or something is late, when one is early for something, or when one wants time to pass so that something will happen. Waiting is often physical - the word suggests, for example, standing or sitting somewhere until something happens.

Compare:

- I'm expecting a phone call from John at three o'clock. (NOT I'm waiting for a phone call from John at three o'clock.)

I hope he rings on time. I hate waiting for people to phone. (NOT ;I hate expecting people to phone.)

- He expects to get a bike for his birthday. (= He thinks he'll get one.)

It's hard to wait for things when you're five years old.

- I expected her at ten, but she didn't turn up.

I waited for her till eleven, and then went home.

Can't wait often expresses impatience.

I can't wait for the holidays!

When we say that we expect a person, this usually means that he/she is coming to our home, office etc. Compare:

Come and see me this afternoon. I'll expect you at 4.00.

Let's meet at the cinema. I'll be there at 6.00. (NOT I'll expect you at 6.00.)

3 look forward: meaning

Look forward means 'think about (something in the future) with pleasure'.

One looks forward to something that is certain to happen, and that one is glad about.

He's looking forward to his birthday.

See you on Sunday. ~ I look forward to it.

4 all four expressions compared

Compare:

I expect to hear from her. (= I'm pretty sure I'll get a letter from her.)

I hope to hear from her. (= I'm not sure whether she'll write, but I would like her to.)

I'm waiting to hear from her. (= I need her letter to come; perhaps it's late.)

I look forward to hearing from her. (= I feel pleasure at the thought that I will hear from her.)

5 structures

a) + object: expect hope for, wait for, look forward to

Compare:

We're expecting rain soon.

We're hoping for a lot of rain - the garden's very dry.

We've been waiting for rain for weeks.

I'm looking forward to the autumn.

b) + infinitive (with to): expect/hope/wait

We expect to spend the summer in France.

We hope to see Annemarie while we're there.

But we're still waiting to hear from her. (BUT NOT I'm looking forward to see Annemarie.)

Before an infinitive, simple and progressive forms of hope and expect can often be used with little difference of meaning.

We hope / We're hoping to get to Scotland next weekend.

We expect / We're expecting to hear from Lucy today

c) + object + infinitive: expect, hope for, wait for

I expect him to arrive about ten o'clock.

We're hoping for John to come up with some new ideas.

I'm still waiting for Harry to pay me back that money.

Expect is often used with object + infinitive to talk about people's duties.

We expect you to work on the first Saturday of every month.

Passive versions of the structure are also common.

Staff are expected to start work punctually at 8.30.

d) + -ing form: look forward to

Look forward can be followed by to ... ing, but not by an infinitive (see 298.2).

I look forward to meeting you. (NOT ... to meet you.)

I look forward to hearing from you. (common formula at the end of a letter)

Simple and progressive forms can often be used with little difference of meaning.

I look forward / I'm looking forward to the day when the children leave home.

e) + that-clause: expect, hope

I expect (that) she'll be here soon. I hope (that) I'll recognise her. (BUT NOT I'm waiting that she arrives.)

Before a that-clause, progressive forms of expect are not normally used.

I expect (that) she'll be here soon. (NOT I'm expecting (that) ... )

I expect (that) ... can be used to talk about the present or past, with the meaning of 'I suppose', 'I have good reason to think'.

I expect you're all tired after your journey.

Sarah isn't here. I expect she was too tired to come.

Before a that-clause, simple and progressive forms of hope can often be used with little difference of meaning.

We hope / We're hoping you can come and stay with us soon.

Hope is often followed by a present tense with a future meaning (see 250).

I hope she doesn't miss the train.

f) expect something of somebody

This structure refers to people's feelings about how other people ought to behave.

My parents expected too much of me when I was at school - they were terribly upset when I failed my exams.

For hope and expect in negative clauses, see 369.

For not and so after hope and expect, see 539.

For and after wait, see 53. For wish, see 630.

197 experiment and experience

An experiment is a test which somebody does to see what the result will be, or to prove something. Experiment is generally used with the verb do. There is also a verb to experiment.

We did an experiment in the chemistry lesson, to see if you could get chlorine gas from salt. (NOT We did an experience ...)

I'm experimenting with a new perfume.

An experience is something that you live through; something that happens to you in life. Experience is generally used with the verb have. There is also a verb to experience.

I had a lot of interesting experiences during my year in Africa. (NOT I made a lot at interesting experiences ... )

Have you ever experienced the feeling that you were going mad? (NOT Have you ever experienced the feeling ... ?)

The uncountable noun experience means 'the knowledge that you get from doing things'.

Sales person wanted - experience unnecessary.

198 explain

After explain, we use to before an indirect object.

I explained my problem to her. (NOT I explained her my problem.)

Can you explain to me how to get to your house? (NOT Can you explain me ... ?)

199 fairly, quite, rather and pretty: adverbs of degree

1 fairly

Fairly generally modifies adjectives and adverbs. It does not suggest a very high degree: if you say that somebody is fairly nice or fairly clever, for example, he or she will not be very pleased.

How was the film? ~ Fairly good. Not the best one I've seen this year.

I speak Russian fairly well - enough for everyday purposes.

2 quite

Quite (especially in British English) suggests a higher degree than fairly.

How was the film? ~ Quite good. You ought to go.

It's quite a difficult book - I had trouble with it.

He's lived in St Petersburg, so he speaks Russian quite well.

Quite can modify verbs and nouns.

I quite enjoyed myself at your party. The room was quite a mess.

For word order rules. the use of quite to mean 'completely', and other details, see 489.

3 rather

Rather is stronger than quite. It can suggest 'more than is usual', 'more than was expected', 'more than was wanted', and similar ideas.

How was the film? ~ Rather good - I was surprised.

Maurice speaks Russian rather well. People often think he is Russian.

I think I'll put the heating on. It's rather cold.

I've had rather a long day.

Rather can modify verbs (especially verbs that refer to thoughts and feelings) and nouns.

I rather think we're going to lose. She rather likes gardening.

It was rather a disappointment.

For word order rules and other details of the use of rather, see 490.

4 pretty

Pretty (informal) is like rather, but only modifies adjectives and adverbs.

How's things? ~ Pretty good. You OK?

You're driving pretty fast.

Pretty well means 'almost'.

I've pretty well finished.

200 far and a long way

1 far in questions and negatives

Far is most common in questions and negative clauses.

How far did you walk? The youth hostel is not far from here.

In affirmative clauses we usually prefer a long way.

We walked a long way. (NOT We walked far.)

The station is a long way from here. (More natural than The station is far from here.)

2 far in affirmative clauses

However, far is normal in affirmative clauses with too, enough, as and so.

She's gone far enough. ~A bit too far.

It's ready as far as I know.

Any problems? ~ OK so far.

3 far with comparatives etc

Far is also used (in all kinds of clauses) to modify comparatives, superlatives and too.

She's far older than her husband.

This bike is by far the best.

You're far too young to get married.

4 before a noun: a far country

Far can be used as an adjective before a noun, meaning 'distant'. This is rather formal and old-fashioned.

Long ago, in a far country, there lived a woman who had seven sons.

Much, many and long (for time) are also more common in questions and negative sentences (see 357 and 330).

201 farther and further

1 distance

We use both farther and further to talk about distance. They mean the same.

Edinburgh is farther/further away than York.

2 'additional'

Further (but not farther) can mean 'additional', 'extra', 'more advanced'.

For further information, see page 6.   College of Further Education

202 feel

Feel has several different meanings. Progressive forms can be used with some meanings, but not with others. Feel can be a 'link verb' (see 328), followed by an adjective or noun complement. It can also be an ordinary verb, followed by a direct object.

1 link verb: I feel fine

Feel can be used to talk about one's physical or mental sensations. Adjective or (in British English) noun complements are used.

I feel fine.   Do you feel happy?

Andrew was beginning to feel cold.

When Louise realised what she had done, she felt a complete idiot. (BrE)

In this sense feel is not normally used with reflexive pronouns (myself etc).

He always felt inferior when he was with her. (More natural than He always felt himself inferior ... )

To talk about feelings that are going on at a particular moment, simple or progressive forms can be used. There is little difference of meaning.

I feel fine. / I'm feeling fine.

How do you feel? / How are you feeling?

2 link verb: That feels nice!

Feel can also be used to say that something causes sensations. Progressive forms are not used.

That feels nice! The glass felt cold against my lips.

3 link verb: feel like; feel as if/though

Feel can be followed by like or as if/ though.

My legs feel like cotton wool.

Alice felt as if/though she was in a very nice dream.

(Alice felt like she was ... is also possible - see 74.)

4 feel like meaning 'want'

Feel like can also mean 'want', 'would like'.

I feel like a drink. Have you got any beer?

In this sense, feel like is often followed by an -ing form.

I felt like laughing, but I didn't dare.

Compare:

I felt like swimming. (= I wanted to swim.)

I felt like / as if I was swimming. (= It seemed as if I was swimming.)

5 ordinary verb: reactions and opinions

Feel is often used to talk about reactions and opinions. Progressive forms are not usually used in this case.

I feel sure you're right. (NOT I'm feeling sure ... )

He says he feels doubtful about the new plan.

That-clauses are common.

I feel (that) she's making a mistake.

A structure with object + to be + complement is possible in a formal style, but it is not very often used.

I felt her to be unfriendly. (More normal: I felt that she was unfriendly.)

There is also a structure feel it (+ to be) + adjective/noun.

We felt it necessary to call the police.

I felt it (to be) my duty to call the police.

6 ordinary verb: 'receive physical sensations'

Feel can be used with a direct object to talk about the physical sensations that come to us through the sense of touch.

I suddenly felt an insect crawling up my leg.

Progressive forms are not used, but we often use can feel to talk about a sensation that is going on at a particular moment.

I can feel something biting me!

7 ordinary verb: 'touch'

Feel can also be used with a direct object to mean 'touch something to learn about it or experience it'. Progressive forms are possible.

Feel the photocopier. It's very hot.

What are you doing? ~ I'm feeling the shirts to see if they're dry.

203 female and feminine; male and masculine

Female and male refer to the sex of people, animals and plants.

A female fox is called a vixen.  A male duck is called a drake.

Feminine and masculine are used for qualities and behaviour that are felt to be typical of men or women.

She has a very masculine laugh.

It was a very feminine bathroom.

Feminine and masculine are used for grammatical forms in some languages.

The word for 'moon' is feminine in French and masculine in German

204 finally, at last, in the end and at the end

1 finally

Finally can suggest that one has been waiting a long time for something. In this sense, it often goes in mid-position (with the verb - see 24).

After trying three times, she finally managed pass her exam.

Steve has finally found a job.

Finally can also introduce the last element in a series, like lastly (see 157.10).

We must increase productivity. We must reduce unemployment. And finally, we must compete in world markets.

2 at last

At last also suggests - very strongly - the idea of impatience or inconvenience resulting from a long wait or delay.

James has paid me that money at last.

When at last they found him he was almost dead.

At last can be used as an exclamation. (Finally cannot be used in this way.)

At last! Where the hell have you been?

Note that lastly (introducing the last item in a series) is not the same as at last.

Firstly, we need to increase profits. Secondly, ... Thirdly, ... And lastly, we need to cut down administrative expenses. (NOT ... And at last we need to cut down ... )

3 in the end

In the end suggests that something happens after changes or uncertainty.

We made eight different holiday plans, but in the end we went to Brighton.

I left in the middle of the film. Did they get married in the end?

The tax man will get you in the end.

Another use of in the end is to mean 'after we have considered everything'.

In the end, you can't get fit without exercise.

In the end, Mother knows best.

4 at the end

At the end simply refers to the position of something. There is no sense of waiting or delay.

A declarative sentence has a full stop at the end.

I wish I was paid at the beginning of the week and not at the end.

For eventually. see 190.

205 finished

Finished can be used as an adjective meaning 'ready'.

Is the report finished yet?

With personal subjects, to be finished is often used in an informal style with the same meaning as to have finished.

How soon will you be/have finished, dear?

I went to get the car from the garage, but they weren't/hadn't finished

206 fit and suit

These words do not mean exactly the same.

Fit refers to size and shape: if your clothes fit you, they are neither too big nor too small.

These shoes don't fit me - have you got a larger size?

Suit refers to style, colour etc.

Red and black are colours that suit me very well. (NOT ... colours that fit me very well.)

Do you think this style suits me?

Suit can also be used to say whether arrangements are convenient.

Tuesday would suit me very well for a meeting.

207 for: purpose and cause

1 people's purposes: I went for an interview

For can be used to talk about somebody's purpose in doing something, but only when it is followed by a noun.

We stopped at the pub for a drink.

I went to the college for an interview with Professor Taylor.

For is not used before a verb in this sense. The infinitive alone is used to express a person's purpose (see 289).

We stopped at the pub to have a drink. (NOT ... for having a drink OR for to have a drink)

I went to the college to see Professor Taylor. (NOT ... for seeing Professor Taylor. )

2 the purposes of things: -ing forms and infinitives

For can be used before the -ing form of a verb to express the 'purpose' of a thing - what it is used for - especially when the thing is the subject.

Is that cake for eating or just for looking at?

An altimeter is used for measuring height above sea level.

When the clause has a person as subject, an infinitive is often used to express the purpose of a thing.

We use altimeters to measure height above sea level.

3 causes of reactions

For ... ing can also be used after a description of a positive or negative reaction, to explain the behaviour that caused it.

We are grateful to you for helping us out.

I'm angry with you for waking me up.

They punished the child for lying.

He was sent to prison for stealing.

208 for, since, in and from: time

1 for

We use for for duration - to say how long something lasts.

for + period of time

I studied the guitar for three years at school.

That house has been empty for six months.

We go away for three weeks every summer.

My boss will be in Italy for the next ten days.

To measure duration up to the present, we use a present perfect tense (see 460), not a present tense.

I've known her for a long time. (NOT I know her for a long time.)

We've lived here for 20 years. (NOT We live here for 20 years.)

A present tense with for refers to duration into the future. Compare:

How long are you here for? (= Until when ... ?)

How long have you been here for? (= Since when ... ?)

We can often leave out for in an informal style, especially with How long ...? And for is not usually used before all.

How long have you been waiting (for)?

We've been here (for) six weeks. I've had a headache all day.

2 for and since with perfect tenses: the difference

For and since can both be used with a present perfect to talk about duration up to the present. They are not the same. Compare:

for + period

I've known her for three days. (NOT ... since three days.)

It's been raining for weeks.

since + starting point

I've known her since Tuesday.

It's been raining since the beginning of the month.

With a past perfect, for and since refer to duration up to a particular past moment.

She'd been working there for a long time. (NOT ... since a long time.)

She'd been working there since 1988.

3 in after negatives and superlatives (AmE)

After negatives and superlatives, in can be used to talk about duration. This is especially common in American English.

I haven't seen him for/in months.

It was the worst storm for/in ten years.

4 from and since

From and since give the starting points of actions, events or states: they say when things begin or began.

from/since + starting point

I'll be here from three o'clock onwards.

I work from nine to five.

From now on, I'm going to go running every day.

From his earliest childhood he loved music.

I've been waiting since six o'clock.

I've known her since January.

We use since (with a perfect tense) especially when we measure duration from a starting point up to the present, or up to a past time that we are talking about.

I've been working since six o'clock, and I'm getting tired. (NOT I've been working from six o'clock ... )

I had been working since six o'clock, and I was getting tired.

From is used in other cases.

The shop was open from eight in the morning, but the boss didn't arrive till ten. (NOT The shop was open since eight ... )

I'll be at home from Tuesday morning (on). ( NOT ... since Tuesday morning.)

From is sometimes possible with a present perfect, especially in expressions that mean 'right from the start'.

She's been like that from her childhood. (OR ... since her childhood.)

From/Since the moment they were married, they've quarrelled.

From/Since the dawn of civilisation, people have made war.

For from ... to and from ... until, see 602.

For more about tenses with since, see 522.

For since meaning 'as' or 'because', see 72.

209 forget and leave

We can use forget to talk about accidentally leaving things behind.

Oh damn! I've forgotten my umbrella.

However, we normally use leave if we mention the place.

Oh damn! I've left my umbrella at home. (NOT I've forgotten my umbrella at home.)

210 fun and funny

Fun is normally an uncountable noun. It can be used after be to say that things or people are enjoyable or entertaining.

The party was fun, wasn't it? (NOT The party was funny.)

Anne and Eric are a lot of fun.

In informal English, fun can also be used as an adjective before a noun.

That was a real fun party.

Funny is an adjective, and is used to say that something makes you laugh.

Why are you wearing that funny hat?

Note that funny has another meaning: 'strange', 'peculiar'.

A funny thing happened. ~ Do you mean funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?

211 future (1): introduction

There are several ways to use verbs to talk about the future in English. This is a complicated area of grammar: the differences between the meanings and uses of the different structures are not easy to analyse and describe clearly. In many, but not all situations, two or more structures are possible with similar meanings.

1 will/shall

When we are simply giving information about the future, or talking about possible future events which are not already decided or obviously on the way, we usually use will (or I/we shall) + infinitive. This is the most common way of talking about the future. For details, see 212.

Nobody will ever know what happened to her.

I think Liverpool will win. I shall probably be home late tonight.

Will and shall are also used to express our intentions and attitudes towards other people: they are common in offers, requests, threats, promises and announcements of decisions. For details, see 217.

Shall I carry your bag?   I'll hit you if you do that again.

I'll phone you tonight.

You can have it for half price.~ OK I'll buy it.

2 present forms: I'm leaving; I'm going to leave

When we talk about future events which have some present reality - which have already been planned or decided, or which we can see are on the way - we often use present forms. The present progressive is common. For details, see 214.

I'm seeing John tomorrow. What are you doing this evening?

The present progressive of go (be going to ... ) is often used as an auxiliary verb to talk about the future. For details, see 213.

Sandra is going to have another baby.

When are you going to get a job?

These present forms are especially common in speech (because conversation is often about future events which are already planned, or which we can see are on the way).

3 simple present: the train leaves ...

The simple present can also be used to talk about the future, but only in certain situations. For details, see 215.

The train leaves at half past six tomorrow morning.

4 other ways of talking about the future

We can use the future perfect to say that something will be completed, finished or achieved by a certain time. For details, see 219.

By next Christmas we'll have been here for eight years.

The future progressive can be used to say that something will be in progress at a particular time. For details, and other uses of this tense, see 220.

This time tomorrow I'll be lying on the beach.

Be about + infinitive (see 5) suggests that a future event is very close.

The plane's about to take off. Is your seat belt done up?

Be + infinitive is used to talk about plans, arrangements and schedules, and to give instructions. For details, see 91.

The President is to visit Beijing in January.

You're not to tell anybody about this.

5 'future in the past'

To say that something was still in the future at a certain past time, we can use a past form of one of the future structures. For details, see 221.

Something was going to happen that was to change the world.

I knew she would arrive before long.

6 subordinate clauses

In many subordinate clauses we refer to the future with present tenses instead of shall/will + infinitive. For details, see 580.

Phone me when you have time. (NOT ... when you'll have time.)

I'll think of you when I'm lying on the beach next week. (NOT ... when I'll be lying on the beach ... )

I'll follow him wherever he goes. (NOT ... wherever he'll go.)

You can have anything I find. (NOT ... anything I'll find.)

212 future (2): will/shall (information and prediction)

1 forms

will + infinitive without to

It will be cold tomorrow.

Where will you spend the night?

Some British people use I shall and we shall instead of I/we will, with no difference of meaning in most situations. (For cases where there is a difference, see 217.) Shall is unusual in American English in most situations (but see 217).

Contractions: I'll, you'll etc; shan't /ʃɑ:nt/ (BrE only), won't /wəʊnt/

2 use: giving information about the future; predicting

Will (or shall) + infinitive is used to give (or ask for) information about the future.

It'll be spring soon. Will all the family be at the wedding?

We shall need the money on the 15th.

Karen will start work some time next week.

In another thirteen minutes the alarm will go off. This will close an electrical contact, causing the explosive to detonate.

We often use will/shall in predictions of future events - to talk about what we think, guess or calculate will happen.

Tomorrow will be warm, with some cloud in the afternoon.

Who do you think will win on Saturday?

I shall be rich one day. You'll never finish that book.

3 conditional use

Will/shall is often used to express conditional ideas, when we say what will happen if something else happens.

He'll have an accident if he goes on driving like that.

If the weather's fine, we'll have the party in the garden.

Look out - you'll fall! (If you're not more careful.)

Come out for a drink. ~ No, I'll miss the film on TV if I do.

Don't leave me. I'll cry!

4 future events already decided: will not used

When future events are already decided, or when we can 'see them coming', we often prefer a present form (usually present progressive or going to ... ).

I'm seeing the headmaster on Monday. My sister's going to have a baby.

For details, see 213, 214 and 216.

5 not used in subordinate clauses: when I arrive

In subordinate clauses, we usually use present tenses instead of will/shall (see 580.2).

I'll phone you when I arrive. (NOT ... when I will arrive.)

For exceptions, see 580.4,8, 260.

6 other uses of will and shall

Will and shall are not only used to give and ask for information about the future. They can also be used to express 'interpersonal' meanings such as requests, offers, orders, threats and promises. For details, see 217.

Shall I open a window? I'll break his neck!

Will you get here at nine tomorrow, please?

For information about all uses of will, see 629.

213 future (3): going to ...

1 a present tense

This structure is really a present tense (the present progressive of go). We use it to talk about future actions and events that have some present reality. If we say that something in the future is going to happen, it is usually already planned or decided, or it is starting to happen, or we can see it coming now. The structure is very common in an informal style, especially in speech (because conversation is often about future actions and events of this kind).

2 plans: We're going to get a new car

We use be going + infinitive to talk about plans, especially in an informal style. This structure often emphasises the idea of intention, or a decision that has already been made.

We're going to get a new car soon.

John says he's going to phone this evening.

When are you going to get your hair cut?

I'm going to keep asking her out until she says 'Yes'.

I'm going to stop him reading my letters if it's the last thing I do.

3 things that are on the way: She's going to have a baby

Another use of the going-to structure is to predict the future on the basis of present evidence - to say that a future action or event is on the way, or starting to happen.

Sandra's going to have another baby in June.

Look at the sky. It's going to rain.   Look out! We're going to crash!

4 commands and refusals

Going to ... can be used to insist that people do things or do not do things.

You're going to finish that soup if you sit there all afternoon!

She's going to take that medicine whether she likes it or not!

You're not going to play football in my garden.

It is also used in emphatic refusals.

I'm not going to sit up all night listening to your problems!

5 gonna

In informal speech, going to is often pronounced /ɡənə/. This is sometimes shown in writing as gonna, especially in American English.

Nobody's gonna talk to me like that.

For was going to, has been going to etc, see 22l.

For going to ... compared with the present progressive, see 214.2.

For a comparison with will, see 216.

214 future (4): present progressive

1 present reality: I'm washing my hair this evening

We use the present progressive for future actions and events that have some present reality. It is most common in discussions of personal arrangements and fixed plans, when the time and place have been decided.

What are you doing this evening? ~ I'm washing my hair.

I'm seeing Larry on Saturday.

We're travelling round Mexico next summer.

Did you know I'm getting a new job?

What are we having for dinner?

My car's going in for a service next week.

We often use the present progressive with verbs of movement, to talk about actions which are just starting.

Are you coming to the pub?

I'm just popping out to the post office. Back in a minute.

Get your coat on! I'm taking you down to the doctor!

Note that the simple present is not often used to talk about the future (see 215).

What are you doing this evening? (NOT What do you do this evening?)

2 present progressive and going to ... : differences

In many cases, both structures can be used to express the same idea.

I'm washing / going to wash my hair this evening.

But there are some differences. For example, we prefer going to ... when we are talking not about fixed arrangements, but about intentions and decisions. Compare:

- I'm seeing Phil tonight. (emphasis on arrangement)

I'm really going to tell him what I think of him. (emphasis on intention: NOT I'm really telling him ... )

- Who's cooking lunch? (asking what has been arranged)

Who's going to cook lunch? (asking for a decision)

Because the present progressive is used especially for personal arrangements, it is not generally used to make predictions about events that are outside

people's control.

It's going to snow before long. (NOT It's snowing before long.)

I can see that things are going to get better soon. (NOT ... things are getting better soon.)

And the present progressive is used for actions and events, but not usually for permanent states. Compare:

Our house is getting / is going to get new windows this winter.

Their new house is going to look over the river. (NOT Their new house is looking over the river.)

3 commands and refusals

The present progressive can be used to insist that people do things or do not do things.

You're finishing that soup if you sit there all afternoon!

She's taking that medicine whether she likes it or not!

You're not wearing that skirt to school.

The present progressive is common in emphatic refusals.

I'm sorry, you're not taking my car.

I'm not washing your socks - forget it!

For a comparison with will, see 216.

215 future (5): simple present

1 timetables etc: The summer term starts ...

We can sometimes use the simple present to talk about the future. This is common when we are talking about events which are part of a timetable, a regular schedule or something similar.

The summer term starts on April 10th.

What time does the bus arrive in Seattle?

My plane leaves at three o'clock.

Are you on duty next weekend?

The sun rises at 6.13 tomorrow.

Will is also usually possible in these cases.

2 subordinate clauses: when she gets a job

The simple present is often used with a future meaning in subordinate clauses - for example after what, where, when, until, if, than. For details, see 580.

I'll tell you what I find out. (NOT ... what I'll find out.)

She'll pay us back when she gets a job. (NOT ... when she'll get a job.)

Alex will see us tomorrow if he has time. (NOT ... if he will have time.)

3 instructions: Where do I pay?

Occasionally the simple present is used with a future meaning when asking for and giving instructions.

Where do I pay?   Well, what do we do now?

So when you get to London you go straight to Victoria Station, you meet up with the others, Ramona gives you your ticket, and you catch the 17.15 train for Dover. OK?

4 other cases

In other cases, we do not usually use the simple present to talk about the future.

Lucy's coming for a drink this evening. (NOT Lucy comes ... )

I promise I'll phone you this evening. (NOT I promise I phone you this evening. )

There's the doorbell. ~ I'll go. (NOT ... I go.)

216 future (6): present forms or will?

Will is the 'basic' structure for talking about the future. We use will if there is not a good reason for using present forms.

1 present reality

We prefer present forms (present progressive or going to ...) when we are talking about future events that have some present reality (see 213-214). In other cases we use will. Compare:

- I'm seeing Janet on Tuesday. (The arrangement exists now.)

I wonder if she'll recognise me. (not talking about the present)

- We're going to get a new car. (The decision already exists.)

I hope it will be better than the last one. (not talking about the present)

2 predictions: thinking and guessing about the future

In predictions, we use going to when we have outside evidence for what we say - for example black clouds in the sky, a person who is obviously about to fall.

See those clouds? It's going to rain. (NOT See those clouds? It will rain.)

Look - that kid's going to fall off his bike. (NOT Look! That kid'll fall off his bike.)

We prefer will for predictions when there is not such obvious outside evidence - when we are talking more about what is inside our heads: what we know, or believe, or have calculated. (When we use will, we are not showing the listener something; we are asking him or her to believe something.) Compare:

- Look out - we're going to crash! (There is outside evidence.)

Don't lend him your car. He's a terrible driver - he'll crash it. (the speaker's knowledge)

- I've just heard from the builder. That roof repair's going to cost £7,000. (outside evidence - the builder's letter)

I reckon it'll cost about £3,000 to put in new lights. (the speaker's opinion)

- Alice is going to have a baby. (outside evidence - she is pregnant now)

The baby will certainly have blue eyes, because both parents have. (speaker's knowledge about genetics)

217 future (7): will and shall (interpersonal uses)

1 differences between will and shall

Will and shall are not only used for giving information about the future. They are also common in offers, promises, orders and similar kinds of 'interpersonal' language use. In these cases, will (or 'll) generally expresses willingness or wishes (this is connected with an older use of will to mean 'wish' or 'want'). Shall expresses obligation (like a more direct form of should).

2 announcing decisions: will

We often use will when we tell people about a decision as we make it, for instance if we are agreeing to do something.

OK We'll buy the tickets. You can buy supper after the show.

The phone's ringing. ~ I'll answer it. (NOT I'm going to answer it.)

Remember to phone Joe, won't you? ~ Yes, I will.

Shall is not used in this way.

You can have it for £50. ~ OK I'll buy it. (NOT ... I shall buy it.)

Note that the simple present is not normally used to announce decisions.

I think I'll go to bed. (NOT I think I go to bed.)

There's the doorbell. ~ I'll go. (NOT ... I go.)

To announce decisions that have already been made, we generally prefer going to ... or the present progressive (see 213-214).

Well, we've agreed on a price, and I'm going to buy it.

I've made my decision and I'm sticking to it.

Stressed will can express determination.

I will stop smoking! I really will!

3 promises and threats: will

We often use will/'ll in promises and threats. Note that the simple present is not possible in these cases.

I promise I won't smoke again. (NOT I promise I don't smoke ... )

I'll phone you tonight. (NOT I phone ... )

I'll hit you if you do that again. You'll suffer for this!

Shall is also possible in British English after I and we, but it is less common than will.

I shall give you a teddy bear for your birthday.

In older English, shall was often used with second and third person subjects in promises and threats. This is now very unusual.

You shall have all you wish for.   He shall regret this

4 refusals: won't

Will not or won't is used to refuse, or to talk about refusals.

I don't care what you say, I won't do it.

The car won't start.

5 asking for instructions and decisions: shall

Questions with shall I/we are used (in both British and American English) to ask for instructions or decisions, to offer services, and to make suggestions. Will is not used in this way.

Shall I open a window? (NOT Will I open a window?)

Shall I carry your bag?

What time shall we come and see you?

What on earth shall we do?

Shall we go out for a meal?

Let's go and see Lucy, shall we?

6 giving instructions and orders: will

We can use Will you ... ? to tell or ask people to do things. (In polite requests, Would you ... ? is preferred - see 633.5.)

Will you get me a newspaper when you're out?

Will you be quiet, please!   Make me a cup of coffee, will you?

For reporting of interpersonal shall in indirect speech, see 278.4.

218 future (8): will/shall, going to and present progressive (advanced points)

1 will/shall and present forms: both possible

The differences between the structures used to talk about the future are not always very clear-cut. Will/shall and present forms (especially going to ... ) are often both possible in the same situation, if 'present' ideas like intention or fixed arrangement are a part of the meaning, but not very important. The choice can depend on which aspect we wish to emphasise.

- What will you do next year? (open question about the future; perhaps no clear plans have been made)

What are you doing next year? (emphasis on fixed arrangements)

What are you going to do next year? (emphasis on intentions)

- All the family will be there.

All the family are going to be there.

- If your mother comes, you'll have to help with the cooking.

If your mother comes, you're going to have to help with the cooking.

- You won't believe this.

You're not going to believe this.

- Next year will be different.

Next year is going to be different.

- John will explain everything to you.

John's going to explain everything to you.

Both going to ... (see 213) and stressed will (see 217.2) can express a strong intention or determination.

I'm really going to stop smoking! I really will stop smoking!

In cases like these, the different forms are all correct, and it is unimportant which one is chosen.

2 official arrangements

Will is often used, rather than present forms, in giving information about impersonal, fixed arrangements - for example official itineraries. Compare:

We're meeting Sandra at 6.00.

The Princess will arrive at the airport at 14.00. She will meet the President at 14.30, and will then attend a performance of traditional dances.

3 predictions as orders

Predictions can be used as a way of giving orders - instead of telling somebody to do something, the speaker just says firmly that it will happen. This is common in military-style orders.

The regiment will attack at dawn.

You will start work at six o'clock sharp.

4 different meanings of will you ...?

With a verb referring to a state, will you ...? asks for information.

How soon will you know your holiday dates?

Will you be here next week?

With a verb referring to an action, will you...? usually introduces an order or request (see 217.6).

Will you turn off that music!

Will you do the shopping this afternoon, please?

To ask for information about planned actions, we use a present form (see 213-214) or the future progressive (see 220).

When are you going to see Andy?

Are you doing the shopping this afternoon?

Will you be doing the shopping ...?

5 expressing certainty about the present or past

We can use will to talk about the present - to say what we think is probably or certainly the case.

There's somebody at the door. ~ That'll be the postman.

Don't phone them now - they'll be having dinner.

Will have ... can express similar ideas about the past.

As you will have noticed, there is a new secretary in the front office.

It's no use expecting Barry to turn up. He'll have forgotten.

For more about this and other uses of will, see 629.

6 obligation: shall

In contracts and other legal documents, shall is often used with third-person subjects to refer to obligations and duties.

The hirer shall be responsible for maintenance of the vehicle.

In normal usage, we prefer will, must or should to express ideas of this kind.

219 future (9): future perfect (they will have finished)

will have + past participle

We can use the future perfect to say that something will be finished or complete by a certain time in the future.

The builders say they will have finished the roof by Tuesday.

I'll have spent all my holiday money by the end of the week.

Shall can be used instead of will after I and we (see 212.1).

I shall have spent ...

A progressive form can be used to talk about a continuous activity.

I'll have been teaching for twenty years this summer.

For will have ... used to express certainty about the past (e.g. It's no use phoning - he'll have left by now), see 218.5, 629.

220 future (10): future progressive

shall/will + be + ... ing

1 events in progress in the future

We can use the future progressive to say that something will be in progress (going on) at a particular moment in the future.

This time tomorrow I'll be lying on the beach.

Good luck with the exam. We'll be thinking of you.

2 events that are fixed or expected to happen

The future progressive is also used (without a progressive meaning) to refer to future events which are fixed or decided, or which are expected to happen in the normal course of events.

Professor Baxter will be giving another lecture on Roman glass-making at the same time next week.

I'll be seeing you one of these days, I expect.

3 no idea of making decisions

The future progressive is useful if we want to show that we are not talking about making decisions, but about things that will happen 'anyway'.

Shall I pick up the laundry for you? ~ Oh, no, don't make a special journey. ~ It's OK. I'll be going to the shops anyway.

The tense can be used to make polite enquiries about people's plans. (By using the future progressive to ask 'What have you already decided?', the speaker shows that he/she does not want to influence the listener's intentions.) Compare:

Will you be staying in this evening? (very polite enquiry, suggesting 'I simply want to know your plans')

Are you going to stay in this evening? (pressing for a decision)

This usage is possible with verbs that do not normally have progressive forms (see 471).

Will you be wanting lunch tomorrow?

4 progressive form with going to

A progressive form of the going to structure is also possible.

I'm going to be working all day tomorrow, so I won't have time to shop.

For will be ... ing used to express certainty about the present (e.g. Don't phone now - they'll be having lunch), see 218.5, 629.

221 future (11): future in the past

Sometimes when we are talking about the past, we want to talk about something which was in the future at that time - which had not yet happened. To express this idea, we use the structures that are normally used to talk about the future (see 211-220), but we make the verb forms past. For example, instead of is going to we use was going to; instead of the present progressive we use the past progressive; instead of will we use would; instead of is to we use was to.

Last time I saw you, you were going to start a new job.

I had no time to shop because I was leaving for Germany in two hours.

In 1988 I arrived in the town where I would spend ten years of my life.

I went to have a look at the room where I was to talk that afternoon.

Perfect forms of be going to are also possible.

I've been going to write to you for ages, but I've only just found time.

For was to have + past participle (e.g. She was to have taken over my job, but she felt ill), see 91.1.

222 gender (references to males and females)

English does not have many problems of grammatical gender. Usually, people are he or she and things are it. Note the following points.

1 animals, cars, ships and countries

People sometimes call animals he or she, especially when they are thought of as having personality, intelligence or feelings. This is common with pets and domestic animals like cats, dogs and horses.

Once upon a time there was a rabbit called Joe. He lived ...

Go and find the cat and put her out.

In these cases, who is often used instead of which.

She had an old dog who always slept in her bed.

Some people use she for cars, motorbikes etc; sailors often use she for boats and ships (but most other people use it).

How's your new car? ~ Terrific. She's running beautifully.

The ship's struck a rock. She's sinking!

We can use she for countries, but it is more common in modern English.

France has decided to increase its trade with Romania. (OR ... her trade ... )

2 he or she

Traditionally, English has used he/him/his when the sex of a person is not known, or in references that can apply to either men or women, especially in a formal style.

If a student is ill, he must send his medical certificate to the College office.

If I ever find the person who did that, I'll kill him.

Many people now regard such usage as sexist and try to avoid it. He or she, him or her and his or her are common.

If a student is ill, he or she must send a medical certificate ...

3 unisex they

In an informal style, we often use they to mean 'he or she', especially after indefinite words like somebody, anybody, nobody, person. This usage is sometimes considered 'incorrect', but it has been common in educated speech for centuries. For details, see 528.

If anybody wants my ticket, they can have it.

There's somebody at the door. ~ Tell them I'm out.

When a person gets married, they have to start thinking about their responsibilities.

4 actor and actress etc

A few jobs and positions have different words for men and women. Examples:

Man | Woman | Man | Woman
actor | actress | monk | nun
(bride)groom | bride | policeman | policewoman
duke | duchess | prince | princess
hero | heroine | steward | stewardess
host | hostess | waiter | waitress
manager | manageress | widower | widow

A mayor can be a man or a woman; in Britain a mayoress is the wife of a male mayor.

Some words ending in -ess (e.g. authoress, poetess) have gone out of use (author and poet are now used for both men and women). The same thing is happening to actress and manageress. Steward and stewardess are being replaced by other terms such as flight attendant, and police officer is often used instead of policeman/ woman.

5 words ending in -man

Some words ending in -man do not have a common feminine equivalent (e.g. chairman, fireman, spokesman). As many women dislike being called, for example, 'chairman' or 'spokesman', these words are now often avoided in references to women or in general references to people of either sex. In many cases, -person is now used instead of -man.

Alice has just been elected chairperson (or chair) of our committee.

A spokesperson said that the Minister does not intend to resign.

In some cases, new words ending in -woman (e.g. spokeswoman) are coming into use. But there is also a move to choose words, even for men, which are not gender-marked (e.g. supervisor instead of foreman; ambulance staff instead of ambulance men, firefighter instead of fireman).

6 man

Man and mankind have traditionally been used for the human race.

Why does man have more diseases than animals?

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong, on stepping onto the moon)

Some people find this usage sexist, and prefer terms such as people, humanity or the human race. Note also the common use of synthetic instead ofman-made.

7 titles

Ms (pronounced /mɪz/ or /məz/) is often used instead of Mrs or Miss. Like Mr, it does not show whether the person referred to is married or not.

For more information about names and titles, see 363.

223 get (1): basic structures

Get is one of the commonest words in English, and is used in many different ways. It is sometimes avoided in a very formal style, but it is correct and natural in most kinds of speech and writing. The meaning of get depends on what kind of word comes after it. With a direct object, the basic meaning is 'obtain', 'come to have'; with other kinds of word, the basic meaning is 'become', 'come to be'.

1 get + noun/pronoun: I got a letter

With a direct object (noun or pronoun), get usually means 'receive', 'fetch', 'obtain', 'catch' or something similar. The exact meaning depends on the object.

I got a letter from Lucy this morning.

Can you come and get me from the station when I arrive?

If I listen to loud music I get a headache.

If you get a number 6 bus, it stops right outside our house.

Get can be used with two objects (see 610).

Let me get you a drink.

Other meanings are sometimes possible.

I didn't get the joke. (= understand)

I'll get you for this, you bastard. (= punish, make suffer)

Get + noun is not normally used to mean 'become'. To express this meaning, we can use get to be + noun (see paragraph 6 below).

Wayne's getting to be a lovely kid. (NOT Wayne's getting a lovely kid.)

2 get + adjective: getting old

Before an adjective, get usually means 'become'.

As you get old, your memory gets worse.

My feet are getting cold.

With object + adjective, the meaning is 'make somebody/something become'.

It's time to get the kids ready for school.

I can't get my hands warm.

We must get the house clean before Mother arrives.

For go + adjective (go green, go blind etc), and the differences between get, go, become, turn etc, see 128.

3 get + adverb particle or preposition: get out

Before an adverb particle (like up, away, out) or a preposition, get nearly always refers to a movement of some kind. (For the difference between get and go, see 225.)

I often get up at five o'clock.

I went to see him, but he told me to get out.

Would you mind getting off my foot?

In some idioms the meaning is different - e.g. get to a place (= arrive at ... ); get over something (= recover from); get on with somebody (= have a good relationship with).

With an object, the structure usually means 'make somebody/something move'.

You can't get him out of bed in the morning.

Would you mind getting your papers off my desk?

Have you ever tried to get toothpaste back into the tube?

The car's OK - it gets me from A to B.

4 get + past participle: get washed, dressed, married etc

Get can be used with a past participle. This structure often has a reflexive meaning, to talk about things that we 'do to ourselves'. Common expressions are get washed, get dressed, get lost, get drowned, get engaged/married/divorced.

You've got five minutes to get dressed.

She's getting married in June.

5 passive auxiliary: He got caught

Get + past participle is also used to make passive structures, in the same way as be + past participle.

My watch got broken while I was playing with the children.

He got caught by the police driving at 120 mph.

I get paid on Fridays. I never get invited to parties.

This structure is mostly used in an informal style, and it is not often used to talk about longer, more deliberate, planned actions.

Our house was built in 1827. (NOT Our house got built in 1827.)

Parliament was opened on Thursday. (NOT Parliament got opened ... )

6 get ...ing; get + infinitive

Get ... ing is sometimes used informally to mean' start .. .ing', especially in the expressions get moving, get going.

We'd better get moving - it's late.

With an infinitive, get can mean 'manage', 'have an opportunity' or 'be allowed'.

We didn't get to see her - she was too busy.

When do I get to meet your new boyfriend?

Get + infinitive can also suggest gradual development.

He's nice when you get to know him.

You'll get to speak English more easily as time goes by.

Wayne's getting to be a lovely kid.

7 got and gotten

In British English the past participle of get is got. In American English the past participle is gotten (e.g. You've gotten us in a lot of trouble.) except in the structure have got (see 237).

224 get (2): + object + verb form

1 causative: Don't get him talking

Get + object + ... ing means 'make somebody/something start .. .ing'.

Don't get him talking about his illnesses.

Once we got the heater going the car started to warm up.

2 causative: Get Penny to help us

Get + object + infinitive means 'make somebody/something do something' or 'persuade somebody/something to do something': there is often an idea of difficulty.

I can't get that child to go to bed.

Get Penny to help us if you can.   See if you can get the car to start.

For have + object + infinitive (meaning 'order/instruct somebody to do something'), see 238.1.

3 causative: get something done

Get + object + past participle can mean 'cause something to be done by somebody else'. The past participle has a passive meaning.

I must get my watch repaired. (= I want my watch to be repaired.)

I'm going to get my hair cut this afternoon.

Have is used in a similar structure: see 238.2.

4 experience: We got our roof blown off

Get + object + past participle can sometimes be used in the sense of 'experience' .

We got our roof blown off in the storm last week.

This idea is more often expressed with have (e.g. We had our roof blown off) - see 238.3.

5 Get the children dressed

We can also use get + object + past participle to talk about completing work on something.

It will take me another hour to get the washing done.

After you've got the children dressed, can you make the beds?

225 get and go: movement

Go is used to talk about a whole movement.

Get is used when we are thinking mainly about the end of a movement - the arrival. Compare:

- I go to work by car and Lucy goes by train.

I usually get there first.

- I went to a meeting in Bristol yesterday.

I got to the meeting at about eight o'clock.

We often use get to suggest that there is some difficulty in arriving.

It wasn't easy to get through the crowd.

I don't know how we're going to get over the river.

Can you tell me how to get to the police station?

For get and go meaning 'become', see 128.

226 give with action-nouns

1 give a cough, etc

We can replace certain verbs by a structure with give and a noun. This often happens in BrE, for example, with verbs referring to sounds made by people (e.g. cough, cry, scream, chuckle, laugh, shout).

He gave a cough to attract my attention.

Suddenly she gave a loud scream and fell to the ground.

2 give somebody a smile, etc

The structure is also used with an indirect object (in both BrE and AmE) to replace transitive verbs, especially in an informal style. Common expressions:

give somebody a smile, a look, a kiss, a hug, a ring (BrE = a phone call)

give something a push, a kick

give it a try, a go (BrE = a try), a shot (AmE = a try)

give it a miss (BrE)

not give it a thought

She gave me a strange look.

I'll give you a ring if I hear anything.

If the car won't start, we'll give it a push.

Perhaps salt will make it taste better. ~ OK, let's give it a try.

Are you coming to the film? ~ No, I'm tired. I'll give it a miss. (BrE)

He seemed to be in a bad temper, but I didn't give it a thought.

For taboo expressions like I don't give a damn/shit etc, see 575.

For other structures in which nouns replace verbs, see 598.

For more about structures with give, see 610.

227 go/come for a ...

We can use the structure go/come for a ... in some fixed expressions referring to actions, mostly leisure activities. Using this structure makes the action sound casual and probably rather short. (Compare go ... ing - see 228.)

Common examples:

go/come for a walk, a run, a swim, a ride, a drive, a drink, a meal

go for a bath, a shower, a pee/piss (taboo - see 575).

We need some fresh air. Let's go for a walk.

Would you like to come for a drink this evening?

I'm going for a shower. Can you answer my phone if it rings?

This structure is only used with certain action-nouns - we would probably not say, for example, Come for a ski with us or I'm going for a read.

For other structures in which nouns are used to refer to actions, see 598.

228 go/come ... ing

1 go ... ing

We use go with an -ing form to talk about activities in which people move about, and which do not have a fixed beginning or end. The structure is common in expressions referring to sport and leisure activities - for example go climbing, go dancing, go fishing, go hunting, go riding, go sailing, go shooting, go skating, go skiing, go swimming, go walking.

Let's go climbing next weekend.

Did you go dancing last Saturday?

Go ... ing is also used to talk about looking for or collecting things.

I think I'll go shopping tomorrow.

In June all the students go looking for jobs.

Anne's going fruit-picking this weekend.

We do not use go ... ing to talk about activities that have a more definite beginning and end (NOT go boxing, go watching a football match).

2 come ...ing

Come ... ing is also possible in certain situations (for the difference between come and go, see 134).

Come swimming with us tomorrow.

3 prepositions

Note that prepositions of place, not direction, are used after go/come ... ing.

I went swimming in the river. (NOT I went swimming to the river.)

She went shopping at Harrods. (NOT ... to Harrods.)

229 gone with be

Gone can be used like an adjective after be, to say that somebody is away, or that something has disappeared or that there is no more.

She's been gone for three hours - what do you think she's doing?

You can go out shopping, but don't be gone too long.

When I came back my car was gone. Is the butter all gone?

For been used as a past participle of go or come, see 95.

230 had better

1 meaning

We use had better to give strong advice, or to tell people what to do (including ourselves).

You'd better turn that music down before your Dad gets angry.

It's seven o'clock. I'd better put the meat in the oven.

Had better refers to the immediate future. It is more urgent than should or ought. Compare:

I really ought to go and see Fred one of these days. - Well, you'd better do it soon - he's leaving for South Africa at the end of the month.

Had better is not used in polite requests. Compare:

Could you help me, if you've got time? (request)

You'd better help me. If you don't, there'll be trouble. (order/threat)

Note that had better does not usually suggest that the action recommended would be better than another one that is being considered - there is no idea of comparison. The structure means 'It would be good to ... ', not 'It would be better to ...'.

2 forms

Had better refers to the immediate future, but the form is always past (have better is impossible). After had better we use the infinitive without to.

It's late - you had better hurry up.

(NOT ... you have better ... )

(NOT ... you had better hurrying / to hurry ... )

We normally make the negative with had better not + infinitive.

You'd better not wake me up when you come in.

(You hadn't better wake me ... is possible but very unusual.)

A negative interrogative form Hadn't ... better ... ? is possible.

Hadn't we better tell him the truth?

Normal unemphatic short answer forms are as follows:

Shall I put my clothes away? ~ You'd better!

He says he won't tell anybody. ~ He'd better not.

Had is sometimes dropped in very informal speech.

You better go now. I better try again later

231 half

1 half (of)

We can use half or half of before a noun with a determiner (article, possessive or demonstrative). We do not normally put a or the before half in this case.

She spends half (of) her time travelling. (NOT She spends a/the half ... )

I gave him half (of) a cheese pie to keep him quiet.

When half (of) is followed by a plural noun, the verb is plural.

Half (of) my friends live abroad. (NOT Half of my friends lives ... )

Of is not used in expressions of measurement and quantity.

I live half a mile from here. (NOT ... half of a mile ... )

I just need half a loaf of bread. (NOT ... half of a loaf ... )

We use half of before pronouns.

Did you like the books? ~ I've only read half of them.

2 no following noun

Half can be used without a following noun, if the meaning is clear.

I've bought some chocolate. You can have half (NOT ... the half)

3 the half

We use the before half if we are saying which half we mean. Before a noun, of is used in this case.

Would you like the big half or the small half?

I didn't like the second half of the film.

4 half a and a half

Half usually comes before the article a/an, but it is possible to put it after in expressions of measurement.

Could I have half a pound of grapes? (OR ... a half pound ... )

5 one and a half

The expression one and a half is plural. Compare:

I've been waiting for one and a half hours. (NOT ... one and a half hour.)

I've been waiting for an hour and a half

For more information about numbers and counting expressions, see 389.

For half in clock times (e.g. half past two), see 579.

232 happen to ...

Happen can be used with a following infinitive to suggest that something happens unexpectedly or by chance.

If you happen to see Joan, ask her to phone me.

One day I happened to get talking to a woman on a train, and she turned out to be a cousin of my mother's.

In sentences with if or in case, the idea of by chance can be emphasised by using should before happen.

Let me know if you should happen to need any help.

I'll take my swimming things, in case I should happen to find a pool open.

233 hardly, scarcely and no sooner

These three expressions can be used (often with a past perfect tense - see 423) to suggest that one thing happened very soon after another. Note the sentence structure:

... hardly when/before ...

... scarcely when/before ...

... no sooner than ...

I had hardly/scarcely closed my eyes when the phone rang.

She was hardly/scarcely inside the house before the kids started screaming.

I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.

We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick.

In a formal or literary style, inverted word order is possible (see 302).

Hardly had I closed my eyes when I began to imagine fantastic shapes.

No sooner had she agreed to marry him than she started to have doubts.

234 have (1): introduction

Have is used in several different ways:

a) as an auxiliary verb, to make perfect verb forms

Have you heard about Peter and Corinne?

I remembered his face, but I had forgotten his name.

b) to talk about possession, relationships and other states

They have three cars.

Have you got any brothers or sisters?

Do you often have headaches?

c) to talk about actions and experiences

I'm going to have a bath.

We're having a party next weekend.

d) with an infinitive, to talk about obligation (like must)

I had to work last Saturday.

e) with object + verb form, to talk about causing or experiencing actions

and events

He soon had everybody laughing.

I must have my shoes repaired.

We had our car stolen last week.

For details of the different structures and meanings, see the following sections.

For contractions (I've, haven't etc), see 143.

For weak forms, see 616.

For had better + infinitive, see 230.

235 have (2): auxiliary verb

have + past participle

1 perfect verb forms

We use have as an auxiliary verb with past participles, to make 'perfect' verb forms.

You've heard about Peter and Corinne? (present perfect: see 455-460)

I realised that I had met him before. (past perfect: see 423-425)

We'll have been living here for two years next Sunday. (future perfect: see 219)

I'd like to have lived in the eighteenth century. (perfect infinitive: see 280)

Having been there before, he knew what to expect. (perfect participle: see 408.2a)

2 questions and negatives

Like all auxiliary verbs, have makes questions and negatives without do.

Have you heard the news? (NOT Do you have heard ... ?)

I haven't seen them. (NOT I don't have seen them.)

3 progressive forms

There are no progressive forms of the auxiliary verb have.

I haven't seen her anywhere. (NOT I'm not having seen her anywhere.)

For contractions, see 143.

For weak forms, see 616.

236 have (3): actions

1 meaning and typical expressions

We often use have + object to talk about actions and experiences, especially in an informal style.

Let's have a drink.

I'm going to have a bath.

I'll have a think (BrE) and let you know what I decide.

Have a good time.

In expressions like these, have can be the equivalent of 'eat', 'drink', 'enjoy', 'experience' or many other things - the exact meaning depends on the following noun. Common expressions:

have breakfast / lunch / supper / dinner / tea / coffee / a drink / a meal

have a bath / a wash / a shave / a shower

have a rest / a lie-down / a sleep / a dream

have a good time / a bad day / a nice evening / a day off / a holiday

have a good journey / flight / trip etc

have a talk / a chat / a word with somebody / a conversation / a disagreement / a row / a quarrel / a fight

have a swim / a walk / a ride / a dance / a game of tennis etc

have a try / a go

have a look

have a baby (= give birth)

have difficulty / trouble (in) ... ing

have an accident / an operation / a nervous breakdown

Note American English take a bath/shower/rest/swim/walk.

Have can also be used to mean 'receive' (e.g. I've had a phone call from Sue).

2 grammar

In this structure, we make questions and negatives with do. Progressive forms are possible. Contractions and weak forms of have are not used.

Did you have a good holiday? (NOT Had you a good holiday?)

What are you doing? ~ I'm having a bath.

I have lunch at 12.30 most days. (NOT I've lunch ... )

For other common structures in which nouns are used to talk about actions, see 598.

237 have (4): have (got) - possession, relationships and other states

1 meanings

We often use have to talk about states: possession, relationships, illnesses, the characteristics of people and things, and similar ideas.

Her father has a flat in Westminster.

They hardly have enough money to live on.

Do you have any brothers or sisters?

The Prime Minister had a bad cold.

My grandmother didn't have a very nice personality.

Sometimes have simply expresses the fact of being in a particular situation.

She has a houseful of children this weekend.

I think we have mice.

2 progressive forms not used

Progressive forms of have are not used for these meanings.

She has three brothers. (NOT She is having three brothers.)

Do you have a headache? (NOT Are you having a headache?)

3 questions and negatives with do

In American English and modern British English, questions and negatives are commonly formed with do.

Does the house have a garden?

Her parents did not have very much money

4 shorter question and negative forms: Have you ... ?; she has not

Short question and negative forms (e.g. Have you ... ?, she has not) were common in older English. In modern English they are rather formal and uncommon (except in a few fixed expressions like I haven't the faintest idea). They are not normally used in American English.

- Have you an appointment? (formal BrE only)

Do you have an appointment? (AmE/BrE)

- Angela has not the charm of her older sisters. (formal BrE only)

Angela does not have the charm ... (AmE/BrE)

5 have got

In conversation and informal writing, we often use the double form have got.

I've got a new boyfriend. (More natural in speech than I have a new boyfriend.)

Has your sister got a car? I haven't got your keys.

Note that have got means exactly the same as have in this case - it is a present tense of have, not the present perfect of get.

6 have got (details)

Do is not used in questions and negatives with got.

Have you got a headache? (NOT Do you have got ... )

The flat hasn't got a proper bathroom. (NOT The flat doesn't have got ... )

Got-forms of have are not used in short answers or tags.

Have you got a light? ~ No, I haven't. (NOT No, I haven't got.)

Anne's got a bike, hasn't she?

Got-forms of have are less common in the past tense.

I had flu last week. (NOT I had got flu ... )

Did you have good teachers when you were at school?

Got is not generally used with infinitives, participles or -ing forms of have: you cannot usually say to have got a headache or having got a brother. The infinitive of have got is occasionally used after modal verbs (e.g. She must have got a new boyfriend).

Have got is rather less common in American English, especially in questions and negatives.

In very informal American speech, people may drop 've (but not 's) before got.

I('ve) got a problem.

Got- and do-forms may be mixed in American English, especially when short answers, reply questions and tags follow got-forms.

I've got a new apartment. ~ You do?

7 repetition: got not used

When we are talking about repeated or habitual states, got-forms of have are less often used. Compare:

- I have / I've got toothache.

I often have toothache.

- Do you have / Have you got time to go to London this weekend?

Do you ever have time to go to London?

- Sorry, I don't have / haven't got any beer.

We don't usually have beer in the house.

8 repetition: a change in British English

Traditionally, do-forms of have were used in British English mostly to express habit or repetition. Compare (BrE):

Do you often have meetings?

Have you (got) a meeting today?

In modern British English (which is heavily influenced by American English), do-forms are common even when there is no idea of repetition.

Do you have time to go to the beach this weekend? (AmE / modern BrE)

238 have (5): + object + verb form

Have can be followed by object + infinitive (without to), object + -ing, and object + past participle.

1 causative: have somebody do/doing something

Have + object + infinitive can mean 'cause somebody to do something'. This is mostly used in American English, to talk about giving instructions or orders.

I'm ready to see Mr Smith. Have him come in, please.

The manager had everybody fill out a form.

The structure with an -ing form can mean 'cause somebody to be doing something' (BrE and AmE).

He had us laughing all through the meal.

For get + object + infinitive (meaning 'persuade somebody/something to do something'), see 224.2.

2 causative: have something done

Have + object + past participle can mean 'cause something to be done by somebody else'. The past participle has a passive meaning.

I must have my watch repaired. (= I want my watch to be repaired.)

I'm going to have my hair cut this afternoon.

If you don't get out of my house I'll have you arrested.

Get is used in a similar structure: see 224.3.

3 experience: have something happen/happening

In the structure have + object + infinitive/...ing, have can mean 'experience'.

I had a very strange thing happen to me when I was fourteen.

We had a gipsy come to the door yesterday.

It's lovely to have children playing in the garden again.

I looked up and found we had water dripping through the ceiling.

Note the difference between the infinitive in the first two examples (for things that happened), and the -ing form in the last two (for things that are/were happening). This is like the difference between simple and progressive tenses (see 461, 422).

4 experience: We had our roof blown off

Have + object + past participle can also be used in the sense of 'experience'. Again, the past participle has a passive meaning.

We had our roof blown off in the storm.

King Charles had his head cut off.

She's just had a short story published in a magazine.

5 I won't have ...

I won't have + object + verb form can mean 'I won't allow ... '

I won't have you telling me what to do.

I won't have my house turned into a hotel.

239 have (6): have (got) to

1 meaning: obligation, certainty

We can use have (got) + infinitive to talk about obligation: things that it is necessary for us to do. The meaning is quite similar to must; for the differences, see 361.1.

Sorry, I've got to go now.

Do you often have to travel on business?

Have (got) + infinitive can also be used, like must, to express certainty. (This used to be mainly an American English structure, but it is now becoming common in British English.)

I don't believe you. You have (got) to be joking.

Only five o'clock! It's got to be later than that!

2 grammar: with or without do; got

In this structure, have can be used like an ordinary verb (with do in questions and negatives), or like an auxiliary verb (without do). Got is usually added to present-tense auxiliary-verb forms.

When do you have to be back? When have you (got) to be back?

Have got to is not normally used to talk about repeated obligation.

I usually have to be at work at eight. (NOT I've usually got to ... )

Progressive forms are possible to talk about temporary continued obligation.

I'm having to work very hard at the moment.

For more details of the use of do-forms and got-forms of have, see 237.

3 future: have (got) to or will have to

To talk about the future, we can use have (got) to if an obligation exists now; we use will have to for a purely future obligation. Compare:

I've got to get up early tomorrow - we're going to Devon.

One day everybody will have to ask permission to buy a car.

Will have to can be used to tell people what to do. It 'distances' the instructions, making them sound less direct than must (see 361).

You can borrow my car, but you'll have to bring it back before ten.

For more about 'distancing', see 436.

4 pronunciation of have to; gotta

Have to is often pronounced /'hæftə/.

He'll have to /'hæftə/ get a new passport soon.

Note the spelling gotta, sometimes used in informal American English (for instance in cartoon strips) to show the conversational pronunciation of got to.

I gotta call home. A man's gotta do what a man's gotta do.

240 headlines

1 special language

Headlines are the short titles above news reports (e.g. RUSSIAN WOMAN LANDS ON MOON). English news headlines can be very difficult to understand. One reason for this is that headlines are often written in a special style, which is very different from ordinary English. In this style there are some special rules of grammar, and words are often used in unusual ways.

2 grammar

a) Headlines are not always complete sentences. Many headlines consist of noun phrases with no verb.

MORE WAGE CUTS    HOLIDAY HOTEL DEATH
EXETER MAN'S DOUBLE MARRIAGE BID

b) Headlines often contain strings of three, four or more nouns; nouns earlier in the string modify those that follow.

FURNITURE FACTORY PAY CUT ROW

Headlines like these can be difficult to understand. It sometimes helps to read them backwards. FURNITURE FACTORY PAY CUT ROW refers to a ROW (disagreement) about a CUT (reduction) in PAY at a FACTORY that makes FURNITURE.

c) Headlines often leave out articles and the verb be.

SHAKESPEARE PLAY IMMORAL SAYS HEADMASTER
SCHOOLBOY WALKS IN SPACE

d) In headlines, simple tenses are often used instead of progressive or perfect forms. The simple present is used for both present and past events.

BLIND GIRL CLIMBS EVEREST (= ... has climbed ... )
STUDENTS FIGHT FOR COURSE CHANGES (= ... are fighting ... )

The present progressive is used to talk about changes. Be is usually dropped.

BRITAIN GETTING WARMER, SAY SCIENTISTS
TRADE FIGURES IMPROVING

e) Many headline words are used as both nouns and verbs, and nouns are often used to modify other nouns (see paragraph 2b). So it is not always easy to work out the structure of a sentence. Compare:

US CUTS AID TO THIRD WORLD (= The US reduces its help ... CUTS is a verb, AID is a noun.)

AID CUTS ROW (= There has been a disagreement about the reduction in aid. AID and CUTS are both nouns.)

CUTS AID REBELS (= The reduction is helping the revolutionaries. CUTS is a noun, AID is a verb.)

f) Headlines often use infinitives to refer to the future.

PM TO VISIT AUSTRALIA
HOSPITALS TO TAKE FEWER PATIENTS

For is also used to refer to future movements or plans.

TROOPS FOR GLASGOW? (= Are soldiers going to be sent to Glasgow?)

g) Auxiliary verbs are usually dropped from passive structures.

MURDER HUNT: MAN HELD (= ... a man is being held by police.)
SIX KILLED IN EXPLOSION (= Six people have been killed ... )

Note that forms like HELD, ATTACKED are usually past participles with passive meanings, not past tenses (which are rare in headlines). Compare:

- AID ROW: PRESIDENT ATTACKED (= ... the President has been attacked.)
AID ROW: PRESIDENT ATTACKS CRITICS (= ... the President has attacked her critics.)
- BOY FOUND SAFE (= The missing boy has been found safe; he is safe.)
BOY FINDS SAFE (= A boy has found a safe.)

h) As and in are often used instead of longer connecting expressions.

HOSPITAL BOSS AXED AS PATIENTS DIE (= ... because patients die.)
FOOTBALL MANAGER IN CAR CRASH

i) A colon (:) is often used to separate the subject of a headline from what is said about it.

STRIKES: PM TO ACT MOTORWAY CRASH: DEATH TOLL RISES

Quotation marks ('...') are used to show that words were said by somebody else, and that the report does not necessarily claim that they are true.

CRASH DRIVER 'HAD BEEN DRINKING'

A question mark (?) is often used when something is not certain.

CRISIS OVER BY SEPTEMBER?

For other styles with special grammar, see 1.

3 vocabulary

Short words save space, and so they are very common in headlines. Some of the short words in headlines are unusual in ordinary language (e.g. curb, meaning 'restrict' or 'restriction'), and some are used in special senses which they do not often have in ordinary language (e.g. bid, meaning 'attempt'). Other words are chosen not because they are short, but because they sound dramatic (e.g. blaze, which means 'big fire', and is used in headlines to refer to any fire). The following is a list of common headline vocabulary.

act take action; do something

FOOD CRISIS: GOVERNMENT TO ACT

aid military or financial help; to help

MORE AID FOR POOR COUNTRIES
UNIONS AID HOSPITAL STRIKERS

alert alarm, warning

FLOOD ALERT ON EAST COAST

allege make an accusation

WOMAN ALLEGES UNFAIR TREATMENT

appear appear in court accused of a crime

MP TO APPEAR ON DRUGS CHARGES

axe abolish, close down; abolition, closure

COUNTRY BUS SERVICES AXED
SMALL SCHOOLS FACE AXE

BA British Airways

BA MAKES RECORD LOSS

back support

AMERICA BACKS BRITISH PEACE MOVE

ban forbid, refuse to allow something; prohibition

US BANS STEEL IMPORTS
NEW BAN ON DEMONSTRATIONS

bar refuse/refusal to allow entry

HOTEL BARS FOOTBALL FANS
NEW BAR ON IMMIGRANTS

bid attempt

JAPANESE WOMEN IN NEW EVEREST BID

blast explosion; criticise violently

BLAST AT PALACE
PM BLASTS CRITICS

blaze fire

SIX DIE IN HOTEL BLAZE

block stop, delay

TORIES BLOCK TEACHERS' PAY DEAL

blow bad news; discouragement; unfortunate happening

SMITH ILL: BLOW TO WORLD CUP HOPES

bolster give support/encouragement to

EXPORT FIGURES BOLSTER CITY CONFIDENCE

bond political/business association

NEW TRADE BONDS WITH ICELAND

boom big increase; prosperous period

SPENDING BOOM OVER, SAYS MINISTER

boost encourage(ment); to increase; an increase

PLAN TO BOOST EXPORTS

brink edge (of disaster)

WORLD ON BRINK OF WAR

Brussels the European Community parliament and administration

BRUSSELS BANS BRITISH BLACKBERRY WINE

call (for) demand/ appeal (for)

CALL FOR STRIKE TALKS
HOSPITAL ROW: MP CALLS FOR ENQUIRY

campaign organised effort to achieve social or political result

MP LAUNCHES CAMPAIGN FOR PRISON REFORM

cash money

MORE CASH NEEDED FOR SCHOOLS

charge accusation (by police)

THREE MEN HELD ON BOMB CHARGE

chop abolition, closure

300 BANK BRANCHES FACE CHOP

City London's financial institutions

NEW TRADE FIGURES PLEASE CITY

claim (make) a statement that something is true (especially when there may be disagreement); pay claim demand for higher wages

SCIENTIST CLAIMS CANCER BREAKTHROUGH
RACISM CLAIM IN NAVY
TEACHERS' PAY CLAIM REJECTED

clamp down on deal firmly with (usually something illegal)

POLICE TO CLAMP DOWN ON SPEEDING

clash quarrel, fight (noun or verb)

PM IN CLASH OVER ARMS SALES
STUDENTS CLASH WITH POLICE

clear find innocent

DOCTOR CLEARED OF DRUGS CHARGE

Commons the House of Commons (in Parliament)

MINISTERS IN COMMONS CLASH OVER HOUSING

con swindle

TEENAGERS CON WIDOW OUT OF LIFE SAVINGS

crackdown firm application of the law

GOVERNMENT PROMISES CRACKDOWN ON DRUGS DEALERS

crash financial failure

BANK CRASH THREATENS TO BRING DOWN GOVERNMENT

curb restrict; restriction

NEW PRICE CURBS

cut reduce; reduction

BRITAIN CUTS OVERSEAS AID
NEW HEALTH SERVICE CUTS

cutback reduction (usually financial)

TEACHERS SLAM SCHOOL CUTBACKS

dash (make) quick journey

PM IN DASH TO BLAST HOSPITAL

deadlock disagreement that cannot be solved

DEADLOCK IN PEACE TALKS

deal agreement, bargain

TEACHERS REJECT NEW PAY DEAL

demo demonstration

30 ARRESTED IN ANTI-TAX DEMO

dole unemployment pay

DOLE QUEUES LENGTHEN

drama dramatic event; tense situation

PRINCE IN AIRPORT DRAMA

drive united effort

DRIVE TO SAVE WATER

drop give up, get rid of; fall (noun)

GOVERNMENT TO DROP CHILD LABOUR PLAN
BIG DROP IN INDUSTRIAL INVESTMENT

due expected to arrive

QUEEN DUE IN BERLIN TODAY

duo two people

HANDICAPPED DUO ROW ACROSS ATLANTIC

EU The European Union

EU TRADE MINISTERS TO MEET

edge move gradually

WORLD EDGES TOWARDS WAR

envoy ambassador

FRENCH ENVOY DISAPPEARS

face be threatened by

HOSPITALS FACE MORE CUTS STRIKERS FACE SACK

feud long-lasting quarrel or dispute

FAMILY FEUD EXPLODES INTO VIOLENCE: SIX HELD

find something that is found

BEACH FIND MAY BE BONES OF UNKNOWN DINOSAUR

firm determined not to change

PM FIRM ON TAX LEVELS

flak heavy criticism

GOVERNMENT FACES FLAK OVER VAT

flare begin violently

RIOTS FLARE IN ULSTER

foil prevent somebody from succeeding

TWELVE-YEAR-OLD FOILS BANK RAIDERS

fraud swindle, deceit

JAIL FOR TICKET FRAUD MEN

freeze keep(ing) prices etc at their present level; block(ing) a bank account

MINISTER WANTS TWO-YEAR PAY FREEZE
DRUG PROFITS FROZEN

fuel provide reason for growth (of anger, protest etc)

PAY FREEZE FUELS UNION ANGER

gag censor(ship), prevent (ion) from speaking

AFRICAN PRESIDENT ACTS TO GAG PRESS

gems jewels

£2M GEMS STOLEN

go resign; be lost, disappear

PM TO GO?

4,000 JOBS TO GO IN NORTH

go for be sold for

PICASSO DRAWING GOES FOR £5M

go-ahead approval

SCOTTISH ROAD PLAN GETS GO-AHEAD

grab take violently

INVESTORS GRAB SHARES IN SCOTTISH COMPANIES

grip control; hold tightly

REBELS TIGHTEN GRIP ON SOUTH
COLD WAVE GRIPS COUNTRY

gun down shoot

TERRORISTS GUN DOWN PRIEST

hail welcome, praise

PM HAILS PEACE PLAN

halt stop

CAR PLANT TO HALT PRODUCTION

haul amount stolen in robbery, or seized by police or customs

TRAIN ROBBERY: BIG GOLD HAUL

RECORD DRUGS HAUL AT AIRPORT

head lead; leader

PM TO HEAD TRADE MISSION
COMMONWEALTH HEADS TO MEET IN OTTAWA

head for/to move towards

ECONOMY HEADING FOR DISASTER, EXPERTS WARN

heed pay attention to

GOVERNMENT MUST HEED DIVORCE FIGURES, SAYS BISHOP

hike (AmE) rise in costs, prices etc

INTEREST HIKE WILL HIT BUSINESS

hit affect badly

SNOWSTORMS HIT TRANSPORT

hit out at attack (with words)

PM HITS OUT AT CRITICS

hitch problem that causes delay

LAST-MINUTE HITCH DELAYS SATELLITE LAUNCH

hold arrest; keep under arrest

MAN HELD AFTER STATION BLAST
POLICE HOLD TERROR SUSPECT

in (the) red in debt; making a financial loss

BRITISH STEEL IN RED

IRA Irish Republican Army

IRA LEADER MAKES STATEMENT

jail prison

JAIL FOR PEACE MARCHERS

jobless unemployed (people)

THREE MILLION JOBLESS BY APRIL?

key important, vital

KEY WITNESS VANISHES

landslide victory by large majority in election

LANDSLIDE FOR NATIONALISTS

lash criticise violently

BISHOP LASHES TV SEX AND VIOLENCE

launch send (satellite etc) into space; begin (campaign etc); put (new product) on market

SPACE TELESCOPE LAUNCH DELAYED
ENVIRONMENT MINISTER LAUNCHES CAMPAIGN FOR CLEANER BEACHES
BRITISH FIRM LAUNCHES THROW-AWAY CHAIRS

lead clue (in police enquiry)

NEW LEAD IN PHONEBOX MURDER CASE

leak unofficial publication of secret information

PM FURIOUS OVER TAX PLAN LEAKS

leap big increase

LEAP IN IMPORTS

life imprisonment 'for life'

LIFE FOR AXE MURDERER

link connection, contact

NEW TRADE LINKS WITH PERU

loom threaten to happen

VAT ON FOOD: NEW ROW LOOMS

Lords the House of Lords (in Parliament)

LORDS VOTE ON DOG REGISTRATION

lotto the national lottery

DANCING GRANDMOTHER IN RECORD LOTTO WIN

mar spoil

CROWD VIOLENCE MARS CUP FINAL

mercy intended to save lives

DOCTOR IN MERCY DASH TO EVEREST

mission delegation (official group sent to conference etc)

SHOTS FIRED AT UN MISSION

mob angry crowd; organised crime / Mafia (AmE)

MOBS RAMPAGE THROUGH CITY STREETS
MOB LEADERS HELD

move step towards a particular result (often political)

MOVE TO BOOST TRADE LINKS WITH JAPAN

MP Member of Parliament

MP DENIES DRUGS CHARGE

MEP Member of the European Parliament

MEPS WANT MORE PAY

nail force somebody to admit the truth

MP NAILS MINISTER ON PIT CLOSURE PLANS

net win, capture

TWO SISTERS NET £3M IN POOLS WIN

no 10 the Prime Minister's residence (No 10 Downing Street)

ANOTHER PETITION HANDED IN AT No 10

OAP old age pensioner; anybody over 65

OAPS MARCH AGAINST WAR PLANS

odds chances, probability

JONES RE-ELECTED AGAINST THE ODDS

on about, on the subject of, concerning

NEW MOVE ON PENSIONS

opt (for) choose

WALES OPTS FOR INDEPENDENCE

oust drive out, replace

MODERATES OUSTED IN UNION ELECTIONS

out to intending to

NATIONALISTS OUT TO CAPTURE MASS VOTE

over about, on the subject of, because of

ROW OVER AID CUTS

pact agreement

DEFENCE PACT RUNS INTO TROUBLE

pay wages

TRANSPORT PAY TALKS BREAK DOWN

PC police constable

PC SHOT IN BANK RAID

peak high point

BANK LENDING HITS NEW PEAK

peer lord; Member of the House of Lords

PEERS REJECT GOVERNMENT WAGE-FREEZE BAN

peg hold (prices etc) at present level

BANKS PEG INTEREST RATES

pensioner old age pensioner; anybody over 65

PENSIONER SKIS DOWN MONT BLANC

peril danger

FLOOD PERIL IN THAMES VALLEY

pit coal mine

PIT TURNED INTO MUSEUM

plant factory

STEEL PLANT BLAZE

plea call for help

BIG RESPONSE TO PLEA FOR FLOOD AID

pledge promise

GOVERNMENT GIVES PLEDGE ON JOBLESS

PM Prime Minister

EGG THROWN AT PM

poised to ready to, about to

TORIES POISED TO MAKE ELECTION GAINS

poll election; public opinion survey

TORIES AHEAD IN POLLS

pools football pools: a form of gambling in which people guess the results of football matches

SISTERS SHARE BIG POOLS WIN

premier head of government

GREEK PREMIER TO VISIT UK

press the newspapers

BID TO GAG PRESS OVER DEFENCE SPENDING

press (for) urge, encourage, ask for urgently

MINISTER PRESSED TO ACT ON HOUSING
OPPOSITION PRESS FOR ENQUIRY ON AIR CRASHES

probe investigation; investigate

CALL FOR STUDENT DRUGS PROBE
POLICE PROBE RACING SCANDAL

pull out withdraw; pull-out withdrawal

US PULLS OUT OF ARMS TALKS
CHURCH CALLS FOR BRITISH PULL OUT FROM ULSTER

push (for) ask for, encourage

SCHOOLS PUSH FOR MORE CASH

quake earthquake

HOUSES DAMAGED IN WELSH QUAKE

quit resign, leave

CHURCH LEADER QUITS
MINISTER TO QUIT GOVERNMENT

quiz question (verb)

POLICE QUIZ MILLIONAIRE SUPERMARKET BOSS

raid enter and search; attack (noun and verb), rob, robbery

POLICE RAID DUCHESS'S FLAT
BIG GEMS RAID

rampage riot

FOOTBALL FANS RAMPAGE THROUGH SEASIDE TOWNS

rap criticise

DOCTORS RAP NEW MINISTRY PLANS

rates (bank) interest rates

RATES RISE EXPECTED

record bigger than ever before

RECORD LOSS BY INSURANCE FIRM

riddle mystery

MISSING ENVOY RIDDLE: WOMAN HELD

rift division, disagreement

LAB0UR RIFT OVER DEFENCE POLICY

rock shock, shake

BANK SEX SCANDAL ROCKS CITY
IRELAND ROCKED BY QUAKE

row noisy disagreement, quarrel

NEW ROW OVER PENSION CUTS

rule out reject the possibility of

PM RULES OUT AUTUMN ELECTION

sack dismiss(al) from job

STRIKING POSTMEN FACE SACK

saga long-running news story

NEW REVELATIONS IN BANK SEX SAGA

scare public alarm, alarming rumour

TYPHOID SCARE IN SOUTHWEST

scoop win (prize etc)

PENSIONER SCOOPS LOTTO FORTUNE

scrap throw out (as useless)

GOVERNMENT SCRAPS NEW ROAD PLANS

seek look for

POLICE SEEK WITNESS TO KILLING

seize take (especially in police and customs searches)

POLICE SEIZE ARMS AFTER CAR CHASE
£3M DRUGS SEIZED AT AIRPORT

set to ready to; about to

INTEREST RATES SET TO RISE

shed get rid of

CAR FIRM TO SHED 5,000 JOBS

slam criticise violently

BISHOP SLAMS DEFENCE POLICY

slash cut, reduce drastically

GOVERNMENT TO SLASH HEALTH EXPENDITURE

slate criticise

PM SLATES BISHOP

slay (AmE) murder

FREEWAY KILLER SLAYS SIX

slump fall (economic)

EXPORTS SLUMP CITY FEARS NEW SLUMP

snatch rob, robbery

BIG WAGES SNATCH IN WEST END

soar rise dramatically

IMPORTS SOAR FOR THIRD MONTH

spark cause (trouble) to start

REFEREE'S DECISION SPARKS RIOT

split disagree(ment)

CABINET SPLIT ON PRICES POLICY

spree wild spending expedition

BUS DRIVER SPENDS £30,000 IN THREE-DAY CREDIT CARD SPREE

stake financial interest

JAPANESE BUY STAKE IN BRITISH AIRWAYS

storm angry public disagreement

STORM OVER NEW STRIKE LAW

storm out of leave angrily

TEACHERS' LEADERS STORM OUT OF MEETING

stun surprise, shock

JOBLESS FIGURES STUN CITY

surge sudden increase; rise suddenly

SURGE IN JOBLESS FIGURES

swap exchange

HEART SWAP BOY BETTER

sway persuade

HOSPITAL PROTEST SWAYS MINISTERS

switch to change; a change

DEFENCE POLICY SWITCH

swoop to raid; a police raid

POLICE IN DAWN SWOOP ON DRUGS GANG

threat danger

TEACHERS' STRIKE THREAT

toll number killed

QUAKE TOLL MAY BE £5,000

top (adj) senior, most important

TOP BANKER KIDNAPPED

top (verb) exceed

IMPORTS TOP LAST YEAR'S FIGURES

Tory Conservative

VICTORY FOR TORY MODERATES

trio three people

JAILBREAK TRIO RECAPTURED

troops soldiers

MORE TROOPS FOR BORDER AREA

UK The United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

BRUSSELS CRITICISES UK JAIL CONDITIONS

Ulster Northern Ireland

PM IN SECRET TRIP TO ULSTER

UN The United Nations

UN IN RED: CANNOT BALANCE BUDGET

urge encourage

GOVERNMENT URGED TO ACT ON POLLUTION

US The United States of America

US URGED TO PULL OUT OF MIDDLE EAST

VAT value added tax

NEXT, VAT ON BABYFOOD?

vow promise

EXILED PRESIDENT VOWS TO RETURN

walk out leave in protest

CAR WORKERS WALK OUT OVER WAGE FREEZE

web world-wide web, internet

WEB SHOPPING UP BY 50% IN TWO YEARS

wed marry

BISHOP TO WED ACTRESS

241 hear and listen (to)

1 hear: meaning

Hear is the ordinary word to say that something 'comes to our ears'.

Suddenly I heard a strange noise. (NOT Suddenly I listened to a strange noise.)

Can you hear me?

2 listen (to): meaning

Listen (to) is used to talk about paying attention to sounds that are going on, in progress. It emphasises the idea of concentrating, trying to hear as well as possible. You can hear something without wanting to, but you can only listen to something deliberately. Compare:

I heard them talking upstairs, but I didn't really listen to their conversation.

Listen carefully, please. ~ Could you speak louder? I can't hear you very well.

I didn't hear the phone because I was listening to the radio.

3 complete experiences: hear

Listen (to) is mostly used to talk about concentrating on experiences that are going on, in progress. To talk about the result of listening: experiencing or understanding the whole of a performance, speech, piece of music, broadcast or other communication, we generally use hear. Compare:

- When she arrived, I was listening to a record of Brendel playing Beethoven. (NOT ... I was hearing ... )

I once heard Brendel play all the Beethoven concertos. (NOT I once listened to Brendel play ... )

- I wish I had more time to listen to the radio. (NOT ... to hear the radio.)

Did you hear / listen to the news yesterday?

4 hear not used in progressive forms

Hear is not usually used in progressive forms. To say that one hears something at the moment of speaking, can hear is often used, especially in British English (see 125).

I can hear somebody coming. (NOT I am hearing ... )

5 listen and listen to

When there is no object, listen is used without to. Compare:

Listen! (NOT Listen to!)   Listen to me! (NOT Listen me!)

There are similar differences between see, look (at) and watch. See 506.

For hear + object + infinitive/-ing, see 242.

242 hear, see etc + object + verb form

1 object + infinitive or -ing form

Hear, see, watch, notice and similar verbs of perception can be followed by object + infinitive (without to) or object + -ing form.

I heard him go down the stairs.   I heard him going down the stairs. (NOT I heard him went down the stairs.)

There is often a difference of meaning. After these verbs, an infinitive suggests that we hear or see the whole of an action or event; an -ing form suggests that we hear or see something in progress, going on. Compare:

- I saw her cross the road. (= I saw her cross it from one side to the other.)

I saw her crossing the road. (= I saw her in the middle, on her way across.)

- I once heard him give a talk on Japanese politics.

As I walked past his room I heard him talking on the phone.

- Watch me jump over the stream.

I like to watch people walking in the street.

- I heard the bomb explode. (NOT I heard the bomb exploding.)

I saw the book lying on the table. (NOT I saw the book lie ... )

A progressive form can suggest repetition.

I saw her throwing stones at the other children.

After can see/hear (which refer to actions and events that are in progress - see 125), only the -ing structure is used.

I could see John getting on the bus. (NOT I could see John get ... )

These structures can be used after passive forms of hear and see. In this case, the infinitive has to.

He was never heard to say 'thank you' in his life. (NOT He was never heard say ... )

Justice must not only be done; it must be seen to be done.

She was seen walking away from the accident.

Passive forms of watch and notice are not used in this way.

2 possessives not used

After these verbs, possessives cannot be used with -ing forms.

I saw Mary crossing the road. (NOT I saw Mary's crossing the road.)

3 object + past participle

In this structure, the past participle has a passive meaning.

I heard my name repeated several times. (= My name was repeated.)

Have you ever seen a television thrown through a window?

The idea of 'action or event in progress' can be given by a progressive form (being + past participle).

As I watched the tree being cut down ...

I woke up to hear the bedroom door being opened slowly.

These structures are not possible after passive forms of hear and see.

4 look at

Look at can be followed by object + -ing form, and in American English also by object + infinitive.

Look at him eating!   Look at him eat! (AmE)

For more about verbs that can be followed by both infinitives and -ing forms, see 299.

For the difference between hear and listen, see 241.

For see, look and watch, see 506.

243 hear, see etc with that-clause

The present-tense forms I hear (that) ... and I see (that) ... are often used to introduce pieces of news which one has heard, read or seen on television.

I hear (that) Alice is expecting a baby.

I see (that) the firemen are going on strike.

Some other verbs can be used like this. Common examples are understand and gather. These are often used to check information.

I understand you're moving to a new job. ~ Yes, that's right.

I gather you didn't like the party. - What makes you say that?

244 help

After help, we can use object + infinitive (with or without to).

Can you help me (to) find my ring? (NOT Can you help me finding my ring?)

Thank you so much for helping us (to) repair the car.

Our main task is to help the company (to) become profitable.

Help can also be followed directly by an infinitive without an object.

Would you like to help wash up?

For the expression can't help ... ing, see 126.

245 here and there

We use here for the place where the speaker/writer is, and there for other places.

(on the telephone) Hello, is Tom there? ~ No, I'm sorry, he's not here. (NOT ... he's not there.)

Don't stay there in the corner by yourself. Come over here and talk to us.

Note that here and there cannot normally be used as nouns.

This place is terrible.   It is terrible here. (BUT NOT Here is terrible.)

Did you like that place? (BUT NOT Did you like there?)

There are similar differences between this and that (see 589), come and go see 134) and bring and take (see 112).

For here's and there's followed by plural nouns, see 532.4.

For inverted word order after here and there, see 303.1.

For Here you are, see 545.18.

246 high and tall

1 What kind of things are tall?

We use tall mostly for people, trees, buildings with many floors, and a few other things which are higher than they are wide (e.g. factory chimneys or electricity pylons).

How tall are you? (NOT How high are you?)

There are some beautiful tall trees at the end of our garden.

In other cases we usually prefer high.

Mount Elbrus is the highest mountain in Europe.

The garden's got very high walls.

2 measurements

In measurements, we use tall for people, but we prefer high for things. Compare:

I'm 1m 93 tall.   That tree is about 30m high.

3 distance above the ground

We use high to talk about distance above the ground. A child standing on a chair may be higher than her mother, although she is probably not taller.

That shelf is too high for me to reach.

The clouds are very high today.

4 parts of the body

Parts of the body can be long, but not tall.

Alex has got beautiful long legs. (NOT ... tall legs.)

247 hire, rent and let

1 hire and rent

Hire and rent can mean: 'pay for the use of something'. In British English, rent is used for arrangements involving a long period of time (one rents a house, a flat, a TV). For shorter periods (e.g. paying for a car, a boat, evening dress) rent and hire can both be used.

How much does it cost to rent a two-room flat?

I need to hire/rent a car for the weekend.

Hire (out) and rent (out) can also mean 'sell the use of something'.

There's a shop in High Street that hires/rents (out) evening dress.

In American English, rent is the normal word for both longer and shorter arrangements; hire, in American English, normally means 'employ'.

2 let

Let is used in British English, like rent (out), to talk about selling the use of rooms, houses etc.

We let the upstairs room to a student.

248 holiday and holidays

In British English, the plural holidays is often used for the 'long holiday' of the year. In other cases we normally use the singular holiday. Compare:

Where are you going for your summer holiday(s)?

We get five days' Christmas holiday this year.

Next Monday is a public holiday.

The singular is used in the British expression on holiday (note the preposition).

I met Marianne on holiday in Norway. (NOT ... on/in holidays ... )

Americans more often use the word vacation. (In British English, vacation is mainly used for the periods when universities are not teaching.) Holiday is most often used in American English for a day of publicly observed celebration (such as Thanksgiving) when people do not have to work.

249 home

1 articles and prepositions

No article is used in the expression at home (meaning 'in one's own place').

Is anybody at home? (NOT ... at the home?)

At is often dropped, especially in American English.

Is anybody home?

Home (without to) can be used as an adverb referring to direction.

I think I'll go home. (NOT ... to home.)

There is no special preposition in English to express the idea of being at somebody's home (like French chez, German bei, Danish/Swedish/Norwegian hos etc). One way of saying this is to use at with a possessive.

We had a great evening at Philip's.

Ring up and see if Jacqueline is at the Smiths', could you?

Possessive pronouns cannot be used in this way, though.

Come round to my place for a drink. (NOT ... to mine ...)

2 house and home

House is an emotionally neutral word: it just refers to a particular type of building. Home is used more personally: it is the place that somebody lives in, and can express the idea of emotional attachment to a place. Compare:

There are some horrible new houses in our village.

I lived there for six years, but I never really felt it was my home.

250 hope

1 tenses after hope

After I hope, we often use a present tense with a future meaning.

I hope she likes (= will like) the flowers.

I hope the bus comes soon.

For a similar use of present tenses after bet, see 103.

2 negative sentences

In negative sentences, we usually put not with the verb that comes after hope.

I hope she doesn't wake up. (NOT I don't hope she wakes up.)

For negative structures with think, believe etc, see 369.

3 special uses of past tenses

We can use I was hoping ... to introduce a polite request.

I was hoping you could lend me some money.

I had hoped ... refers to hopes for things that did not happen.

I had hoped that Jennifer would study medicine, but she didn't want to.

For more about the use of past tenses in polite requests, see 436.

For I hope so/not, see 539.

For the differences between hope, expect, wait and look forward, see 196.

251 hopefully

One meaning of hopefully is 'full of hope', 'hoping'.

She sat there waiting hopefully for the phone to ring.

Another, more recent meaning is 'it is to be hoped that' or 'I hope'.

Hopefully, inflation will soon be under control.

Hopefully I'm not disturbing you?

252 how

1 use and word order

How is used to introduce questions or the answers to questions.

How did you do it?

Tell me how you did it.

I know how he did it.

We also use how in exclamations (see 195).The word order is not the same as in questions. Compare:

- How cold is it?

How cold it is!

- How do you like my hair?

How I love weekends! (NOT How do I love weekends!)

- How have you been?

How you've grown! (NOT How have you grown!)

When how is used in an exclamation with an adjective or adverb, this comes immediately after how.

How beautiful the trees are! (NOT How the trees are beautiful!)

How well she plays! (NOT How she plays well!)

For the difference between how and what like, see 253.

2 with adjectives/adverbs: how, not how much

We use how, not how much, before adjectives and adverbs.

How tall are you? (NOT How much tall are you?)

Show me how fast you can run. (NOT ... how much fast ... )

3 comparisons: how not used

In comparisons we use as or like (see 326) or the way (see below), not how.

Hold it in both hands, as / like / the way Mummy does. (NOT ... how Mummy does.)

4 how, what and why

These three question words can sometimes be confused. Note particularly the following common structures.

How do you know? (NOT Why do you know?)

What do you call this? (NOT How do you call this?)

What's that ... called? (NOT How is that ... called?)

What do you think? (NOT How do you think?)

What? What did you say? (NOT How? How did you say?)

Why should I think that?

Both What about ... ? and How about ... ? are used to make suggestions, and to bring up points that have been forgotten.

What/How about eating out this evening?

What/How about the kids? Who's going to look after them?

In exclamations (see 195), what is used before noun phrases; how is used before adjectives (without nouns), adverbs and verb phrases.

What a marvellous house!

How marvellous!   How you've changed!

5 how much, how many, how old, how far etc

Many interrogative expressions of two or more words begin with how. These are used to ask for measurements, quantities etc. Examples:

How much do you weigh?

How many people were there?

How old are your parents?

How far is your house? How often do you come to New York?

Note that English does not have a special expression to ask for ordinal numbers (first, second etc).

It's our wedding anniversary. ~ Congratulations. Which one? (NOT ... the how manyeth?)

6 how-clauses in sentences

How-clauses are common as the objects of verbs like ask, tell, wonder or know, which can introduce indirect questions.

Don't ask me how the journey was.

Tell us how you did it.

I wonder how animals talk to each other.

Does anybody know how big the universe is?

How-clauses can also be used as subjects, complements or adverbials, especially in a more informal style.

How you divide up the money is your business. (subject)

This is how much I've done since this morning. (complement after be)

I spend my money how I like. (adverbial)

7 the way

The way (see 615) can often be used instead of non-interrogative how. Note that the way and how are not used together.

Look at the way those cats wash each other. OR Look at how those cats ... (NOT ... the way how those cats wash ...)

The way you organise the work is for you to decide. OR How you organise ... (NOT The way how you organise ...)

For how to ... , see 286. For how ever, see 624.

For learn how to ... , see 317. For however, see 49, 157.3, 625.

253 how and what ... like?

1 changes: How's Ron?

We generally use how to ask about things that change - for example people's moods and health. We prefer what ... like to ask about things that do not change - for example people's character and appearance. Compare:

- How's Ron? ~ He's very well.

What's Ron like? ~ He's quiet and a bit shy.

- How does she look today? ~ Tired.

What does she look like? ~ Short and dark, pretty, cheerful-looking.

2 reactions: How was the film?

We often use how to ask about people's reactions to their experiences. What ... like is also possible.

How was the film? ~ Very good. (OR What was the film like ... ?)

How's your steak?   How's the new job?

254 -ic and -ical

Many adjectives end in -ic or -ical. There is no general rule to tell you which form is correct in a particular case.

1 some adjectives normally ending in -ic

academic | dramatic | linguistic | semantic
algebraic | egoistic | majestic | syntactic
arithmetic | emphatic | neurotic | systematic
artistic | energetic | pathetic | tragic
athletic | fantastic | pedagogic |
catholic | geometric | phonetic |
domestic | strategic | public |

arithmetical, geometrical and pedagogical also occur.

Some of these words ended in -ical in older English (e.g. fantastical, majestical, tragical).

New adjectives which come into the language generally end in -ic, except for those ending in -logical.

2 some adjectives ending in -ical

biological (and many other adjectives ending in -logical)

chemical | fanatical | medical | surgical
critical | logical | musical | tactical
cynical | mathematical | physical | topical
grammatical | mechanical | radical |

3 differences of meaning

In some cases, both forms exist but with a difference of meaning.

a) classic and classical

Classic usually refers to a famous traditional style.

He's a classic 1960s hippy who has never changed.

She buys classic cars and restores them.

Classical refers to the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, or to European works of art of the so-called 'classical' period in the 18th century.

She's studying classical languages and literature at Cambridge.

Classical music means 'serious' music, not pop or jazz.

It's hard to learn classical guitar.

b) comic and comical

Comic is the normal adjective for artistic comedy.

comic verse   comic opera

Shakespeare's comic technique

Comical is a rather old-fashioned word meaning 'funny'.

a comical expression

c) economic and economical

Economic refers to the science of economics, or to the economy of a country.

economic theory   economic problems

Economical means 'not wasting money'.

an economical little car an economical housekeeper

d) electric and electrical

Electric is used with the names of particular machines that work by electricity.

an electric motor   electric blankets

Note also: an electric shock; an electric atmosphere (full of excitement).

Electrical is used before more general words.

electrical appliances   electrical equipment

electrical component   electrical engineering

e) historic and historical

Historic is used especially for historically important places, remains, customs etc, and for moments which 'make history'.

We spent our holiday visiting historic houses and castles in France.

Our two countries are about to make a historic agreement.

Historical means 'connected with the study of history' or 'really existing in history'.

historical research   a historical novel

historical documents   Was King Arthur a historical figure?

f) magic and magical

Magic is the more common word, and is used in a number of fixed expressions.

a magic wand (= a magician's stick)

the magic word   a magic carpet

Magical is sometimes used instead of magic, especially in metaphorical senses like 'mysterious', 'wonderful' or 'exciting'.

It was a magical experience.

g) politic and political

Politic is a rather unusual word for 'wise', 'prudent'.

I don't think it would be politic to ask for a loan just now.

Political means 'connected with politics'.

political history   a political career

4 adverbs

Note that whether the adjective ends in -ic or -ical, the adverb ends in -ically (pronounced /ɪkli/). The one common exception is publicly (NOT publically).

5 nouns ending in -ics

Many nouns ending in -ics are singular (e.g. physics, athletics). Some can be either singular or plural (e.g. mathematics, politics). For details, see 524.3.

255 idioms, collocations and fixed expressions

1 What are idioms?

An expression like turn up (meaning 'arrive'), break even (meaning 'make neither a profit nor a loss') or a can of worms (meaning 'a complicated problem') can be difficult to understand, because its meaning is different from the meanings of the separate words in the expression. (If you know break and even, this does not help you at all to understand break even.) Expressions like these are called 'idioms'. Idioms are usually special to one language and cannot be translated word for word (though related languages may share some idioms).

2 verbs with particles or prepositions

Common short verbs like bring, come, do, get, give, go, have, keep, make, put, and take are very often used with prepositions or adverb particles (e.g. on, off, up, away) to make two-word verbs. These are called 'prepositional verbs' or 'phrasal verbs', and many of them are idiomatic.

Can you look after the cats while I'm away?

She just doesn't know how to bring up children.

I gave up chemistry because I didn't like it.

Many of these two-word verbs are especially common in informal speech and writing. Compare:

- What time are you planning to turn up? (informal)

Please let us know when you plan to arrive. (more formal)

- Just keep on till you get to the crossroads. (informal)

Continue as far as the crossroads. (formal)

For details of phrasal and prepositional verbs, see 599-600.

3 collocations (conventional word combinations)

We can say I fully understand, but not I fully like; I rather like, but not I rather understand; I firmly believe, but not I firmly think. Somebody can be a heavy smoker or a devoted friend, but not a devoted smoker or a heavy friend.

Expressions like these are also idiomatic, in a sense. They are easy to understand, but not so easy for a learner to produce correctly. One can think of many adjectives that might be used with smoker to say that somebody smokes a lot - for example big, strong, hard, fierce, mad, devoted. It just happens that English speakers have chosen to use heavy, and one has to know this in order to express the idea naturally and correctly. These conventional combinations of words are called 'collocations', and all languages have large numbers of them. Some more examples:

a crashing bore (BUT NOT a crashing nuisance)

a burning desire (BUT NOT a blazing desire)

a blazing row (BUT NOT a burning row)

highly reliable (BUT NOT highly old)

a golden opportunity (BUT NOT a golden chance)

change one's mind (BUT NOT change one's thoughts)

Thanks a lot. (BUT NOT Thank you a lot.)

4 situational language: fixed expressions

The expressions that are used in typical everyday situations are often idiomatic in the same sense. With the help of a dictionary and a grammar, one could invent various possible ways of expressing a particular common idea, but generally there are only one or two ways that happen to be used by English speakers, and one has to know what they are in order to speak or write naturally. Some examples:

Could you check the oil? (More natural than Could you inspect the oil? OR Could you see how much oil there is in the engine?)

Is it a direct flight or do I have to change? (More natural than Does the plane go straight there or do I have to get another one?)

Sorry I kept you waiting. (More natural than Sorry I made you wait.)

Could I reserve a table for three for eight o'clock? (More natural than Could you keep me a table for three persons for eight o'clock)

Other fixed expressions are used as parts of sentences ~ useful introductions, conclusions or frames for the things that people want to say.

Let me know when/where/what/how ...

The best thing would be to ...      (do something) as a favour.

The point is ...      ... is more trouble than it's worth.

I wouldn't be surprised if...      I'll ... on condition that you.

5 using idioms, collocations and fixed expressions.

Idioms, collocations and fixed expressions are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Informal spoken language is often very idiomatic.

Students should not worry because they do not know all the expressions of this kind that are commonly used by English speakers. If they use nonidiomatic ways of expressing ideas, they will normally be understood, and English speakers do not expect foreigners to speak perfect natural English. It is therefore not necessary for students to make great efforts to memorise idioms, collocations etc: they will learn the most common ones naturally along with the rest of their English. In particular, note that books of idioms often contain expressions which are slangy, rare or out of date, and which students should avoid unless they understand exactly how and when the expressions are used.

This is especially true of colourful idioms like, for example, raining cats and dogs, as cross as two sticks (= angry) or kick the bucket (= die). If students try consciously to fill their speech and writing with such expressions the effect will probably be very strange.

It is, however, helpful for learners to have a good up-to-date dictionary of collocations (for example the Oxford Dictionary of Collocations) in order to become aware of the most common word combinations.

For more about formal and informal language, see 31l.

For slang, see 533.

256 if (1): introduction

1 uncertain events and situations

In clauses after if, we usually talk about uncertain events and situations: things which mayor may not happen, which mayor may not be true, etc.

Ask John if he's staying tonight. (He mayor may not be staying.)

If I see Annie, I'll give her your love. (I mayor may not see Annie.)

2 conditions

An if-clause often refers to a condition - something which must happen so that something else can happen.

If you get here before eight, we can catch the early train.

Oil floats if you pour it on water.

Clauses of this kind are often called 'conditional' clauses. Verb phrases with would/should are also sometimes called 'conditional'.

3 'first', 'second' and 'third' conditionals; other structures

Some students' grammars concentrate on three common sentence structures with if, which are often called the 'first', 'second' and 'third' conditionals.

'first conditional'

if + present | will + infinitive
If we play tennis | I'll win.

'second conditional'

if + past | would + infinitive
If we played tennis | I would win.

'third conditional'

if + past perfect | would have + past participle
If we had played tennis | I would have won.

These are useful structures to practise. However, students sometimes think that these are the only possibilities, and become confused when they meet sentences like If she didn't phone this morning, then she's probably away ('What's this? A fourth conditional?'). It is important to realise that if is not only used in special structures with will and would; it can also be used, like other conjunctions, in ordinary structures with normal verb forms. For details, see the following sections.

4 position of if-clause

An if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause

comes first, it is often separated by a comma.

Compare:

If you eat too much, you get fat.

You get fat if you eat too much.

For other meanings of if, see 261.10-13.

For if and whether in indirect speech, see 276, 621.

For if not and unless, see 601.

For more information about would/should, see 633.

For the difference between if and in case, see 271.

For even if, see 189.4.

257 if (2): ordinary structures

If you didn't study physics at school, you won't understand this book.
I'll give her your love if I see her.

1 the same tenses as with other conjunctions

When we are not talking about 'unreal' situations (see 258), we use the same tenses with if as with other conjunctions. Present tenses are used to refer to the present, past tenses to the past, and so on. Compare:

- Oil floats if you pour it on water.

Iron goes red when it gets very hot.

- If John didn't come to work yesterday, he was probably ill.

As John didn't come to work yesterday, he was probably ill.

- If you didn't study physics at school, you won't understand this book.

Because you didn't study physics at school, you won't understand this book.

2 present tense with future meaning

In an if-clause, we normally use a present tense to talk about the future. This happens after most conjunctions (see 580). Compare:

- I'll give her your love if I see her. (NOT ... if I will see her.)

I'll give her your love when I see her. (NOT ... when I will see her.)

- If we have fine weather tomorrow, I'm going to paint the windows.

As soon as we have fine weather, I'm going to paint the windows.

For if + will (e.g. if it will make you feel better), see 260.

For if + will in reported speech (e.g. I don't know if I'll be ready), see 276.

258 if (3): special structures with past tenses and would

If I knew her name, I would tell you.
What would you do if you lost your job?

1 unreal situations

We use special structures with if when we are talking about unreal situations - things that will probably not happen, situations that are untrue or imaginary, and similar ideas. In these cases, we use past tenses and would to 'distance' our language from reality.

2 if + past; would + infinitive without to

To talk about unreal or improbable situations now or in the future, we use a past tense in the if-clause (even though the meaning is present or future), and would + infinitive (without to) in the other part of the sentence.

If I knew her name, I would tell you. (NOT If I know ... ) (NOT If I would know ... ) (NOT ... I will tell you.)

She would be perfectly happy if she had a car.

What would you do if you lost your job?

This structure can make suggestions sound less definite, and so more polite.

It would be nice if you helped me a bit with the housework.

Would it be all right if I came round about seven tomorrow?

3 would, should and 'd

After I and we, should can be used with the same meaning as would. (Would is more common in modern English; should is rare in AmE.)

If I knew her name, I should tell you.

If I married you, we should both be unhappy.

We use 'd as a contraction (see 143).

We'd get up earlier if there was a good reason to.

For I should ... meaning 'I advise you to .. .', see 264.2.

For would in the if-clause, see 262.

For should in the if-clause, see 261.1.

4 if I were etc

We often use were instead of was after if. This is common in both formal and informal styles. In a formal style were is more common than was, and many people consider it more correct, especially in American English. The grammatical name for this use of were is 'subjunctive' (see 567).

If I were rich, I would spend all my time travelling.

If my nose were a little shorter I'd be quite pretty.

For the expression If I were you ... , see 264.

5 ordinary tense-use or special tense-use? If I come or if I came?

The difference between, for example, if I come and if I came is not necessarily a difference of time. They can both refer to the future; but the past tense suggests that a future situation is impossible, imaginary or less probable. Compare:

- If I become President, I'll ... (said by a candidate in an election)

If I became President, I'd ... (said by a schoolboy)

- If I win this race, I'll ... (said by the fastest runner)

If I won this race, I'd ... (said by the slowest runner)

- Will it be all right if I bring a friend? (direct request)

Would it be all right if I brought a friend? (less direct, more polite)

6 could and might

We can use could to mean 'would be able to' and might to mean 'would perhaps' or 'would possibly'.

If I had another £500, I could buy a car.

If you asked me nicely, I might get you a drink.

For other cases where a past tense has a present or future meaning, see 426.

For if only, see 265.

259 if (4): unreal past situations

If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

1 if + past perfect; would have + past participle

To talk about past situations that did not happen, we use a past perfect tense in the if clause, and would have + past participle in the other part of the sentence.

If you had asked me, I would have told you. (NOT If you would have asked me ...) (NOT If you asked me ...) (NOT ... I had told you.)

If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

I'd have been in bad trouble if lane hadn't helped me.

2 could have ... and might have ...

We can use could have + past participle to mean 'would have been able to ...', and might have + past participle to mean 'would perhaps have ...' or 'would possibly have ...'.

If he'd run a bit faster, he could have won.

If I hadn't been so tired, I might have realised what was happening.

3 present use: situations that are no longer possible

We sometimes use structures with would have ... to talk about present and future situations which are no longer possible because of the way things have turned out.

It would have been nice to go to Australia this winter, but there's no way we can do it. (OR It would be nice ... )

If my mother hadn't knocked my father off his bicycle thirty years ago, I wouldn't have been here now. (OR ... I wouldn't be here now.)

260 if (5): if ... will

I'll give you £1 00 if it will help you to go on holiday.
If Ann won't be here, we'd better cancel the meeting.
I don't know if I'll be ready in time.
If you will come this way ...
If you will eat so much ...

We normally use a present tense with if (and most other conjunctions) to refer to the future (see 580).

I'll phone you if I have time. (NOT ... if I will have time.)

But in certain situations we use if ... will.

1 results

We use will with if to talk about what will happen because of possible future actions - to mean 'if this will be the later result'. Compare:

- I'll give you £100 if I win the lottery. (Winning the lottery is a condition - it must happen first.)

I'll give you £100 if it'll help you to go on holiday. (The holiday is a result - it follows the gift of money.)

- We'll go home now if you get the car. (condition)

We'll go home now if it will make you feel better. (result)

2 'If it is true now that .. .'

We use will with if when we are saying 'if it is true now that .. .' or 'if we know now that ...'.

If Ann won't be here on Thursday, we'd better cancel the meeting.

If prices will really come down in a few months, I'm not going to buy one now.

3 indirect questions: I don't know if ...

We can use will after if in indirect questions (see 276).

I don't know if I'll be ready in time. (NOT ... If I'm ready in time.)

4 polite requests

We can use if + will in polite requests. In this case, will is not a future auxiliary; it means 'are willing to' (see 629.4).

If you will come this way, I'll show you your room.

If your mother will fill in this form, I'll prepare her ticket.

Would can be used to make a request even more polite.

If you would come this way ...

5 insistence

Stressed will can be used after if to suggest insistence.

If you WILL eat so much, it's not surprising you feel ill.

261 if (6): other points

1 if ... should; if ... happen to

We can suggest that something is unlikely, or not particularly probable, by using should (not would) in the if-clause.

If you should run into Peter, tell him he owes me a letter.

If ... happen to has a similar meaning.

If you happen to pass a supermarket, perhaps you could get some eggs.

Should and happen to can be used together.

If you should happen to finish early, give me a ring.

Would is not common in the main clause in these structures.

If he should be late, we'll have to start without him. (NOT ... we'd have to start without him.)

2 if ... was/were to

This is another way of talking about unreal or imaginary future events.

If the boss was/were to come in now, we'd be in real trouble. (= If the boss came ... )

What would we do if I was/were to lose my job?

It can be used to make a suggestion sound less direct, and so more polite.

If you were to move your chair a bit, we could all sit down.

This structure is not normally used with verbs like be or know, which refer to continuing situations.

If I knew her name ... (NOT If were to know her name ... )

For the difference between was and were after if, see 258.4.

3 if it was/were not for

This structure is used to say that one event or situation changes everything.

If it wasn't/weren't for his wife's money he'd never be a director. (= Without his wife's money ... )

If it wasn't/weren't for the children, we could go skiing next week.

To talk about the past we use If it had not been for.

If it hadn't been for your help, I don't know what I'd have done.

But for can be used to mean 'if it were not for' or 'if it had not been for'.

But for your help, I don't know what I'd have done.

4 leaving out if: conversational

If is sometimes left out at the beginning of a sentence in a conversational style, especially when the speaker is making conditions or threats.

You want to get in, you pay like everybody else. (= If you want ... )

You touch me again, I'll kick your teeth in.

5 leaving out if: formal inversion-structures

In formal and literary styles, if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject. This happens mostly with were, had and should.

Were she my daughter, ... (= If she were my daughter ... )

Had I realised what you intended, ... (= If I had realised )

Should you change your mind, ... (= If you should change )

Negatives are not contracted.

Had we not missed the plane, we would all have been killed in the crash. (NOT Hadn't we missed ... )

For other uses of inverted word order, see 302-303.

6 leaving out words after if

We sometimes leave out subject + be after if. Note the common fixed expressions if necessary, if any, if anything, if ever, if in doubt.

I'll work late tonight if necessary. (= ... if it is necessary)

There is little if any good evidence for flying saucers.

I'm not angry. If anything, I feel a little surprised.

He seldom if ever travels abroad.

If in doubt, ask for help. (= If you are in doubt ... )

If about to go on a long journey, try to have a good night's sleep.

For more details of ellipsis (structures with words left out), see 177-182.

7 if so and if not

After if, we can use so and not instead of repeating a whole clause.

Are you free? If so, let's go out for a meal. (= ... If you are free ... )

I might see you tomorrow. If not, then it'll be Saturday. (= ... If I don't see you tomorrow ... )

8 extra negative

An extra not is sometimes put into if-clauses after expressions suggesting doubt or uncertainty.

I wonder if we shouldn't ask the doctor to look at Mary. (= I wonder if we should ask ... )

I wouldn't be surprised if she didn't get married soon. (= ... if she got married soon.)

9 if ... then

We sometimes construct sentences with if ... then to emphasise that one thing depends on another.

If she can't come to us, then we'll have to go and see her.

10 if meaning 'even if'

We can use if to mean 'even if' (see 189.4).

I'll finish this job if it takes all night.

I wouldn't marry you if you were the last man in the world.

11 admitting facts with if

An if-clause can be used to admit a fact when giving a reason for it.

If I'm a bit sleepy, it's because I was up all night.

12 if meaning 'I'm saying this in case'

If-clauses are quite often used to explain the purpose of a remark - to suggest 'I'm saying this in case .. .'

There's some steak in the fridge if you 're hungry.

If you want to go home, Anne's got your car keys.

13 if meaning 'although'

In a formal style, if can be used with a similar meaning to although. This is common in the structure if + adjective (with no verb). If is not as definite as although; it can suggest that what is being talked about is a matter of opinion, or not very important.

His style, if simple, is pleasant to read.

The profits, if a little lower than last year's, are still extremely healthy.

The same kind of idea can be expressed with may ... but (see 342).

His style may be simple, but it is pleasant to read

262 if (7): other structures found in spoken English

1 would in both clauses

Conditional would is sometimes used in both clauses of an if-sentence. This is very informal, and is not usually written. It is common in spoken American English.

It would be good if we'd get some rain.

How would we feel if this would happen to our family?

For if ... would in polite requests, see 260.4.

2 'd have. .. 'd have

In informal spoken English, if-clauses referring to the past are sometimes constructed with 'd have. This is frequently considered incorrect, but happens quite often in educated people's speech. It is not normally written.

If I'd have known, I'd have told you.

It would have been funny if she'd have recognised him.

3 had've and would've

Instead of the contracted 'd in these structures, full forms are sometimes used for emphasis or in negatives. Both had and would occur. The following are genuine examples taken from conversation.

I didn't know. But if I had've known ...

We would never have met if he hadn't have crashed into my car.

If I would've had a gun, somebody might have got hurt.

If you wouldn't have phoned her we'd never have found out what was happening.

4 mixed tenses

Sometimes a simple past tense is used with if where a past perfect would be normal. This is more common in American English.

If I knew you were coming I'd have baked a cake.

If I had the money with me I would have bought you one.

If I didn't have my walking boots on I think I would have really hurt my foot.

263 if (8): other words with the same meaning

Many words and expressions can be used with a similar meaning to if, and often with similar structures. Some of the commonest are imagine (that), suppose (that), supposing (that) (used to talk about what might happen), and providing (that), provided (that), as/so long as, on condition (that) (used to make conditions).

Imagine we could all fly. Wouldn't that be fun!

Supposing you'd missed the train. What would you have done?

You can borrow my bike providing/provided you bring it back.

I'll give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday morning.

You're welcome to stay with us as/so long as you share the expenses.

For suggestions with suppose, supposing and what if, see 571.

264 if I were you

1 advice

We often use the structure If I were you ... to give advice.

I shouldn't worry if I were you.

If I were you, I'd get that car serviced.

If I was you is also possible. Some people consider it incorrect (see 258.4).

2 I should/would ...

Sometimes we leave out If I were you, and just use I should ... or I would ... to give advice.

I shouldn't worry. I would get that car serviced.

In this case, I should/would is similar to you should/would.

265 if only

We can use If only...! to say that we would like things to be different. It means the same as I wish... (see 630), but is more emphatic. The clause with if only often stands alone, without a main clause. Tense use is as follows:

a) past to talk about the present

If only I knew more people!   If only I was better-looking!

We can use were instead of was (see 258.4).

If only your father were here!

b) would + infinitive (without to) to talk about the future

If only it would stop raining, we could go out.

If only somebody would smile!

c) past perfect to talk about the past

If only she hadn't told the police, everything would have been all right.

266 ill and sick

Ill and sick are both used to mean 'unwell'. (In American English ill is less usual except in a formal style.)

George didn't come in last week because he was ill/sick.

Ill is not very common before a noun.

I'm looking after my sick mother. (More normal than ... my ill mother.)

Be sick can meant 'vomit' (= bring food up from the stomach).

I was sick three times in the night

267 immediately, the moment etc: conjunctions

In British English, immediately and directly can be used as conjunctions, to mean 'as soon as'.

Tell me immediately you have any news.

I knew something was wrong immediately I arrived.

Directly I walked in the door, I smelt smoke.

The moment (that), the instant (that), the second (that) and the minute (that) can be used in the same way (in both British and American English).

Telephone me the moment (that) you get the results.

I loved you the instant (that) I saw you.

268 imperatives

1 forms and use

In sentences like Come here, Be quiet, Have a drink or Don't worry about it, the verb forms come, be, have and don't worry are called 'imperatives'. Affirmative imperatives have the same form as the infinitive without to; negative

imperatives are constructed with do not (don't).

Imperatives are used, for example, to tell or ask people to do things, to make suggestions, to give advice or instructions, to encourage and offer, and to express wishes for people's welfare.

Look in the mirror before you drive off.

Please do not lean out of the window.

Tell him you're not free this evening.

Try again - you nearly did it.

Have some more tea.

Enjoy your holiday.

An imperative followed by and or or can mean the same as an if-clause.

Walk down our street any day and you'll see kids playing. (= If you walk ... )

Shut up or I'll lose my temper. (= If you don't shut up ... )

Don't do that again or you'll be in trouble.

2 emphatic imperative: Do sit down

We can make an emphatic imperative with do.

Do sit down.   Do be more careful.   Do forgive me.

3 passive imperative: get vaccinated

To tell people to arrange for things to be done to them, we often use get + past participle.

Get vaccinated as soon as you can.

For more about get as passive auxiliary, see 223.5.

4 do(n't) be

Although do is not normally used as an auxiliary with be (see 90), this happens in negative imperatives.

Don't be silly!

Do be can begin emphatic imperatives.

Do be quiet!

5 subject with imperative

The imperative does not usually have a subject, but we can use a noun or pronoun to make it clear who we are speaking to.

Mary come here - everybody else stay where you are.

Somebody answer the phone.   Relax, everybody.

You before an imperative can suggest emphatic persuasion or anger.

You just sit down and relax for a bit.   You take your hands off me!

Note the word order in negative imperatives with pronoun subjects.

Don't you believe it. (NOT You don't believe it.)

Don't anybody say a word. (NOT Anybody don't say ... )

6 question tags

After imperatives, common question tags (see 487-488) are will you? would you? can you? and could you?

Give me a hand, will you?

Wait here for a minute, would you?

Get me something to drink, can you?

Can't you and won't you are more emphatic.

Be quiet, can't you? Sit down, won't you?

After negative imperatives, will you? is used.

Don't tell anybody, will you?

7 word order with always and never

Always and never come before imperatives.

Always remember what I told you. (NOT Remember always ... )

Never speak to me like that again.

8 let

English does not have a first-person imperative (used to suggest that 'I' or 'we' should do something) or a third-person imperative (for other people, not the hearer). These ideas are often expressed by a structure with let.

Let me see. Do I need to go shopping today?   Let's go home.

Let him wait.

For more details of this structure, see 323.

269 in and into, on and onto: prepositions

1 position and direction

We generally use in and on to talk about the positions of things - where they are; and into and onto to talk about directions and destinations - where things are going. Compare:

- A moment later the ball was in the goal.

The ball rolled slowly into the goal. (NOT ... rolled slowly in the goal.)

- She was walking in the garden.   - The cat's on the roof again.

Then she walked into the house.   How does it get onto the roof?

Note that into and onto are normally written as single words. On to is also possible in British English.

2 in and on for movement

After some verbs (e.g. throw, jump, push, put, fall) we can use both in and into, or on and onto, to talk about directional movement. We prefer into/onto when we think of the movement itself, and in/on when we think more of the end of the movement - the place where somebody or something will be. Compare:

- The children keep jumping into the flowerbeds.

Go and jump in the river.

- In the experiment, we put glowing magnesium into jars of oxygen.

Could you put the ham in the fridge?

- He was trying to throw his hat onto the roof

Throw another log on the fire.

We use in and on after sit down and arrive.

He sat down in the armchair, and I sat down on the floor. (NOT He sat down into ... OR I sat down onto ... )

We arrive in Athens at midday. (NOT USUALLY We arrive into Athens ... )

For arrive at ... , see 81.

3 into for change

We normally use into after verbs suggesting change.

When she kissed the frog, it changed into a handsome prince. (NOT ... changed in a handsome prince.)

Can you translate this into Chinese? (NOT ... translate this in Chinese?)

Cut can be followed by into or in.

Cut the onion in(to) small pieces.

And note the expression in half

I broke it in half (NOT ... into half)

4 in and on as adverbs

In and on are used as adverbs for both position and movement.

I stayed in last night.   Come in! (NOT Come into!)

What have you got on?   Put your coat on.

For the difference between in and to, see 270.

270 in and to

1 go to school in ... etc

After expressions like go to school, go to work, we use in, not to, to say where the school, work etc is located.

He went to school in Bristol. (NOT He went to school to Bristol.)

At is also possible. (For the difference between in and at, see 81.)

She went to university at/in Oxford.

2 arrive etc

We use in (or at), not to, after arrive and land.

We arrive in Bangkok on Tuesday morning. (NOT We arrive to Bangkok ... )

What time do we land at Barcelona? (NOT ... land to Barcelona?)

271 in case and if

1 precautions

In case is mostly used to talk about precautions - things which we do in order to be ready for possible future situations.

I always take an umbrella in case it rains. (= ... because it might rain.)

To talk about the future, we use a present tense after in case (see 580).

I've bought a chicken in case your mother stays to lunch. (NOT ... in case your mother will stay ... )

2 in case ... should

We often use should + infinitive (with a similar meaning to might) after in case. This adds the meaning 'by chance'.

I've bought a chicken in case your mother should stay to lunch.

This structure is especially common in sentences about the past.

I wrote down her address in case I should forget it.

The meaning 'by chance' can also be expressed by (should) happen to.

We took our swimming things in case we happened to find a pool. (OR ... in case we should happen to find a pool.)

3 in case and if

In case and if are normally used in quite different ways.

'Do A in case B happens' means 'Do A (first) because B might happen later'.

'Do A if B happens' means 'Do A if B has already happened'. Compare:

- Let's buy a bottle of wine in case Roger comes. (= Let's buy some wine now because Roger might come later.)

Let's buy a bottle of wine if Roger comes. (= We'll wait and see. If Roger comes, then we'll buy the wine. If he doesn't we won't.)

- I'm taking an umbrella in case it rains.

I'll open the umbrella if it rains. (NOT I'll open the umbrella in case it rains.)

- People insure their houses in case they catch fire. (NOT ... if they catch fire.)

People telephone the fire brigade if their houses catch fire. (NOT ... telephone ... in case their houses catch fire.)

4 in case of

The prepositional phrase in case of has a wider meaning than the conjunction in case, and can be used in similar situations to if.

In case of fire, break glass. (= If there is a fire ...)

272 in spite of

In spite of is used as a preposition. In spite of + noun means more or less the same as although + clause.

We went out in spite of the rain. (= ... although it was raining.)

We understood him in spite of his accent. (= ... although he had a strong accent.)

In spite of is the opposite of because of. Compare:

She passed her exams in spite of her teacher. (She had a bad teacher.)

She passed her exams because of her teacher. (She had a good teacher.)

In spite of can be followed by an -ing form.

In spite of having a headache I enjoyed the film.

In spite of cannot be followed directly by a that-clause. Instead, we can use in spite of the fact that.

He is good company, in spite of the fact that he talks all the time.

This is rather heavy: although means the same, and is more common.

In more formal English, despite can be used in the same way as in spite of.

273 indeed

1 very ... indeed

Indeed is often used to emphasise very with an adjective or adverb.

I was very pleased indeed to hear from you.

He was driving very fast indeed.   Thank you very much indeed.

Indeed is unusual in this sense without very, and is not normally used after extremely or quite.

(NOT He was driving fast indeed.)

(NOT He was driving quite/extremely fast indeed.)

2 indeed with verb

Indeed can also be used after be or an auxiliary verb in order to suggest confirmation or emphatic agreement. This is rather formal. It is common in short answers (see 517).

We are indeed interested in your offer, and would be glad to have prices.

It's cold. ~ It is indeed.

Henry made a fool of himself. ~ He did indeed.

274 indirect speech (1): introduction

1 direct and indirect speech

When we report people's words, thoughts, beliefs etc, we can give the exact words (more or less) that were said, or that we imagine were thought. This

kind of structure is called 'direct speech' (though it is used for reporting thoughts as well as speech).

So he said, 'I want to go home,' and just walked out.

She asked 'What do you want?'

And then I thought, 'Well, does he really mean it?'

We can also make somebody's words or thoughts part of our own sentence, using conjunctions (e.g. that), and changing pronouns, tenses and other words where necessary. This kind of structure is called 'indirect speech' or 'reported speech'.

So he said that he wanted to go home, and just walked out.

She asked what I wanted.

And then I wondered whether he really meant it.

These two structures cannot normally be mixed.

She said to me 'I have got no money'. OR She said to me that she had got no money. BUT NOT She said to me that I have got no money.

For punctuation in direct speech, see 476, 478.

For reporting verbs and word order, see 156.

2 change of situation

Words that are spoken or thought in one place by one person may be reported in another place at a different time, and perhaps by another person. Because of this, there are often grammatical differences between direct and indirect speech. For example:

BILL (on Saturday evening): I don't like this party. I want to go home now.

PETER (on Sunday morning): Bill said that he didn't like the party, and he wanted to go home.

These differences are mostly natural and logical, and it is not necessary to learn complicated rules about indirect speech in English.

3 pronouns

A change of speaker may mean a change of pronoun.

In the above example, Bill says I to refer to himself. Peter, talking about what Bill said, naturally uses he.

Bill said that he didn't like ... (NOT Bill said that I didn't like ... )

4 'here and now' words

A change of place and time may mean changing or dropping words like here, this, now, today. Peter, reporting what Bill said, does not use this and now because he is no longer at the party.

Bill said that he didn't like the party ... (NOT Bill said that he didn't like this party ... ) ... he wanted to go home. (NOT ... to go home now.)

Some other 'here and now' words: next, last, yesterday, tomorrow. Compare:

- DIRECT: I'll be back next week.

INDIRECT: She said she'd be back the next week, but I never saw her again.

- DIRECT: Ann got her licence last Tuesday.

INDIRECT: He said Ann had got her licence the Tuesday before.

- DIRECT: I had an accident yesterday.

INDIRECT: He said he'd had an accident the day before.

- DIRECT: We'll be there tomorrow.

INDIRECT: They promised to be there the next day.

5 tenses

A change of time may mean a change of tense.

Bill said that he didn't like the party ... (NOT Bill said that he doesn't like the party ... - when Peter is talking, the party is finished.)

For details of tense changes in indirect speech, see 275.

6 dropping that

The conjunction that is often dropped, especially after common reporting verbs (e.g. say, think) in informal speech. For more details, see 584.

She said (that) she'd had enough.   I think (that) you're probably right.

275 indirect speech (2): tenses

1 past reporting verbs: He said he didn't like the party.

When we report what somebody said or thought, it is usually natural to use different tenses from the original speaker (because we are talking at a different time).

BILL (on Saturday evening): I don't like this party. I want to go home now. (present tenses)

PETER (on Sunday morning): Bill said that he didn't like the party, and he wanted to go home. (past tenses)

It would be strange for Peter to say on Sunday 'Bill said that he doesn't like the party', just as it would be strange for Peter to say, on Sunday, 'Bill doesn't like the party yesterday and goes home'. The tenses used in indirect speech are usually just the tenses that are natural for the situation - see the examples below.

2 typical tense changes after past reporting verbs

will → would

DIRECT : The exam will be difficult.

INDIRECT: They said that the exam would be difficult.

simple present → simple past

DIRECT: I need help.

INDIRECT: She thought she needed help.

present progressive → past progressive

DIRECT: My English is getting better.

INDIRECT: I knew my English was getting better.

present perfect → past perfect

DIRECT: This has been a wonderful holiday.

INDIRECT: She told me that it had been a wonderful holiday.

past → past perfect

DIRECT: Ann grew up in Kenya.

INDIRECT: I found out that Ann had grown up in Kenya.

can → could

DIRECT: I can fly!

INDIRECT: Poor chap - he thought he could fly.

may → might

DIRECT: We may come back early.

INDIRECT: They said they might come back early.

Past perfect tenses do not change.

DIRECT: I arrived late because I had lost the address.

INDIRECT: He said he had arrived late because he had lost the address.

3 would, could etc: no change

Past modal verbs are usually unchanged in indirect speech.

DIRECT: It would be nice if we could meet.

INDIRECT: He said it would be nice if we could meet.

For more details, see 278.3.

4 I told them I was British

After past reporting verbs, we usually change the original tenses even if the things the original speaker said are still true.

- DIRECT: I'm British.

INDIRECT: I told the police I was British. (The speaker still is British.)

- DIRECT: You can use my car today.

INDIRECT: Your mother said I could use her car today. Have you got the keys?

- DIRECT: How old are you?

INDIRECT: Didn't you hear me? I asked how old you were.

- DIRECT: That is my seat.

INDIRECT: Sorry, I didn't realise this was your seat.

However, it is often also possible to keep the original speaker's tenses in these cases.

Didn't you hear me? I asked how old you are.

For details, see 278.2.

5 He says, I'll tell her etc.

After present, future and present perfect reporting verbs, tenses are usually the same as in the original (because there is no important change of time).

- DIRECT: I don't want to play any more.

INDIRECT: He says he doesn't want to play any more.

- DIRECT: We need some help ..

INDIRECT: I'll tell her you need some help.

- DIRECT: Taxes will be raised.

INDIRECT: The government has announced that taxes will be raised.

276 indirect speech (3): questions and answers

1 word order: I asked where Alice was

In reported questions the subject normally comes before the verb in standard English, and auxiliary do is not used.

- DIRECT: Where's Alice?

INDIRECT: I asked where Alice was. (NOT ... where was Alice.)

- DIRECT: When are you leaving?

INDIRECT: He wanted to know when I was leaving. (NOT ... when was I leaving.)

- DIRECT: What do I need?

INDIRECT: She asked what she needed. (NOT ... what did she need.)

- DIRECT: Where are the President and his wife staying?

INDIRECT: I asked where the President and his wife were staying. (NOT Where were staying ... )

The same structure is used for reporting the answers to questions.

I knew how they felt. (NOT ... how did they feel.)

Nobody told me why I had to sign the paper. (NOT ... why did I have to sign ... )

2 no question marks

Question marks are not used in reported questions.

We asked where the money was. (NOT ... 'where the money was?')

3 yes/no questions: He asked if ...

Yes/no questions are reported with if or whether (for the difference, see 621).

The driver asked if/whether I wanted the town centre.

I don't know if/whether I can help you.

In reported questions, we do not use a present tense after if to talk about the future.

I'm not sure if I'll see her tomorrow. (NOT ... if I see her tomorrow.)

4 say and tell: answers, not questions

Say and tell are not used to report questions.

(NOT The driver said whether I wanted the town centre.)

But say and tell can introduce the answers to questions.

Please say whether you want the town centre.

He never says where he's going.   I told her what time it was.

For the difference between say and tell, see 504.

277 indirect speech (4): infinitives

1 He promised to write

Speech relating to actions (e.g. promises, agreements, orders, offers, requests, advice and suggestions) is often reported with infinitives.

He promised to write.   She agreed to wait for me.

Ann has offered to baby-sit tonight.

Object + infinitive is common with ask, advise, tell and order (but not with promise or offer).

I told Andrew to be careful.

The landlady has asked us to be quiet after nine o'clock.

I advise you to think again before you decide.

The policeman told me not to park there.

2 He asked her how to ...

The structure question word + infinitive is common (see 286). It often corresponds to a direct question with should.

He asked her how to make a white sauce. ('How should I make a white sauce?')

Don't tell me what to do.   I've forgotten where to put the keys.

I didn't know whether to laugh or cry.

3 suggest, say: infinitives not used

We do not use infinitive structures after suggest (see 570) or (usually) after say. However, after these and many other verbs, instructions etc can be reported with that-clauses, usually with modal verbs (see 353-354).

I suggested that he should try the main car park. (NOT I suggested him to try ... )

The policeman said that I mustn't park there. (NOT The policemen said me not to park there.)

I told Andrew that he ought to be careful.

Subjunctives (see 567) and -ing forms are also possible after some verbs, e.g. suggest.

I suggested that he try the main car park.

I suggested trying the main car park.

For the structures that are possible after particular verbs, see a good dictionary.

278 indirect speech (5): advanced points

1 reporting past tenses

In indirect speech, a speaker's past tenses are often reported using past perfect tenses.

- DIRECT: I've just written to John.

INDIRECT: She told me she had just written to John.

- DIRECT: I saw Penny at the theatre a couple of days ago.

INDIRECT: In his letter, he said he'd seen Penny at the theatre a couple of days before.

However, past perfect tenses are not always used, especially if the time relationships are clear without a change from past to past perfect.

This man on TV said that dinosaurs were around for 250 million years. (NOT .... that dinosaurs had been around ... )

I told you John (had) phoned this morning, didn't I?

We were glad to hear you (had) enjoyed your trip to Denmark.

2 reporting present and future tenses

If somebody talked about a situation that has still not changed - that is to say, if the original speaker's present and future are still present and future - a reporter can often choose whether to keep the original speaker's tenses or to change them, after a past reporting verb. Both structures are common.

- DIRECT: The earth goes round the sun.

INDIRECT: He proved that the earth goes/went round the sun.

- DIRECT: How old are you?

INDIRECT: Are you deaf? I asked how old you are/were.

- DIRECT: It will be windy tomorrow.

INDIRECT: The forecast said it will/would be windy tomorrow.

We are more likely to change the original speaker's tenses if we do not agree with what he/she said, if we are not certain of its truth, or if we wish to make it clear that the information comes from the original speaker, not from ourselves.

The Greeks thought that the sun went round the earth. (NOT ... that the sun goes round the earth.)

She just said she was fourteen! I don't believe her for a moment.

He announced that profits were higher than forecast.

3 modal verbs in indirect speech

The modals would, should, could, might, ought and must are usually unchanged after past reporting verbs in indirect speech. This is also true of needn't (see 366) and had better (see 230).

- DIRECT: It would be nice if I could see you again.

INDIRECT: He said it would be nice if he could see me again.

- DIRECT: It might be too late.

INDIRECT: I was afraid that it might be too late.

- DIRECT: It must be pretty late. I really must go.

INDIRECT: She said it must be pretty late and she really must go.

- DIRECT: You needn't pretend to be sorry.

INDIRECT: I said he needn't pretend ...

First-person shall and should may be reported as would in indirect speech (because of the change of person).

DIRECT: We shall/should be delighted to come.

INDIRECT: They said they would be delighted to come.

For had to as a past of must, see 358, 360.

4 reporting 'Shall I ... ?'

There are different ways of reporting questions beginning Shall I ... ?, depending on whether the speaker is asking for information or making an offer.

- DIRECT: Shall I be needed tomorrow? (information)

INDIRECT: He wants to know if he will be needed tomorrow.

- DIRECT: Shall I carry your bag? (offer)

INDIRECT: He wants to know if he should/can carry your bag.

5 conditionals

After past reporting verbs, sentences with if and would are usually unchanged.

DIRECT: It would be best if we started early.

INDIRECT: He said it would be best if they started early.

However, if-sentences that refer to 'unreal' situations can change as follows.

DIRECT: If I had any money I'd buy you a drink.

INDIRECT: She said if she had had any money she would have bought me a drink. (OR She said if she had any money she would buy ... )

6 negative questions

Negative questions often express emotions such as surprise or enthusiasm (see 368), and these are usually reported in special ways.

- DIRECT: Don't the children like ice-cream?

INDIRECT: She was surprised that the children didn't like ice-cream. (NOT She asked if the children didn't like ice-cream.)

- DIRECT: Isn't she lovely!

INDIRECT: I remarked how lovely she was. (NOT I asked if she wasn't lovely.)

7 word order with what, who and which

Questions beginning who/what/which + be can ask for a subject or a complement. Compare:

Who is the best player here? (This asks for a subject: a possible answer is John is the best player here.)

What is the time? (This asks for a complement: a possible answer is The time is 4.30, NOT 4.30 is the time.)

When we report the first kind of question (where who/what/which + be asks for a subject), two word orders are possible.>

- DIRECT: Who's the best player here?

INDIRECT: She asked me who was the best player. AND She asked me who the best player was.

- DIRECT: What's the matter?

INDIRECT: I asked what was the matter. AND I asked what the matter was.

- DIRECT: Which is my seat?

INDIRECT: She wondered which was her seat. AND She wondered which her seat was.

This does not happen when who/what/which asks for a complement.

DIRECT: What's the time?

INDIRECT: She asked what the time was. (NOT USUALLY She asked what was the time.)

8 She's written I don't know how many books

Complicated structures can be produced in informal speech when reporting expressions are put into sentences with question-word clauses or relatives.

She's written I don't know how many books.

He's gone I don't know where.

This is the man who Ann said would tell us about the church.

For more about relative structures of this kind, see 498.15.

For more about embedding (clauses inside clauses) in general, see 515.

9 indirect speech without reporting verbs

In newspaper, radio and TV reports, reports of parliamentary debates, records of conferences, minutes of meetings etc, the indirect speech construction is often used with very few reporting verbs. The use of tenses is enough to make it clear that a text is a report.

The Managing Director began his address to the shareholders by summarising the results for the year. Profits on the whole had been high, though one or two areas had been disappointing. It was, however, important to maintain a high level of investment, and he was sure that the shareholders would appreciate ...

In literary narrative, similar structures are common. The reported speech may be made more vivid by using direct question structures and 'here and now' words.

At breakfast, Peter refused to go to school. Why should he spend all his time sitting listening to idiots? What use was all that stuff anyway? If he stayed at home he could read books. He might even learn something useful. His father, as usual, was unsympathetic. Peter had to go to school, by damn, and he had better get moving now, or there'd be trouble.

279 infinitives (1): introduction

1 forms

Infinitives are forms like (to) write, (to) stand. Unlike verb tenses (e.g. writes, stood), infinitives do not usually show the actual times of actions or events.

They usually refer to actions and events in a more general way, rather like -ing forms. (See 293-300).

Infinitives are generally used with to; for infinitives without to, see 281.

Besides simple infinitives like (to) write, there are also progressive infinitives (e.g. (to) be writing), perfect infinitives (e.g. (to) have written) and passive infinitives (e.g. (to) be written). For details of the various forms, see 280.

2 use

Infinitives have many functions. An infinitive can be used, for example, after do or a modal auxiliary verb as part of a verb phrase.

Do you think she's ready?

We must get some more light bulbs.

An infinitive can also be used, alone or with other words:

• as the subject or complement of a clause (see 290)

To watch him eating really gets on my nerves.

The main thing is to relax.   It's nice to talk to you.

• as the object or complement of a verb, adjective or noun (see 282-285)

I don't want to talk. I'm anxious to contact your brother.

You have the right to remain silent.

• to express a person's purpose (see 289)

He came to London to look for work.

For full details of the uses of infinitives, see the following sections.

280 infinitives (2): forms

Besides the ordinary infinitive (e.g. (to) go, (to) work), there are also progressive, perfect and passive forms.

1 progressive infinitive: (to) be .. .ing

Like other progressive forms (see 470), progressive infinitives suggest that actions and events are/were/will be continuing around the time that we are talking about.

It's nice to be sitting here with you.

I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.

This time tomorrow I'll be lying on the beach. (future progressive tense: see 220)

Why's she so late? She can't still be working.

2 perfect infinitive: (to) have + past participle

Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect tenses (see 427) or past tenses (see 421-422).

It's nice to have finished work. (= It's nice that I have finished.)

I'm sorry not to have come on Thursday. (= ... that I didn't come ... )

We often use perfect infinitives to talk about 'unreal' past events: things that did not happen, or that may not have happened (see 288).

I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot.

You should have told me you were coming.

I may have left my umbrella at the restaurant.

3 passive infinitive: (to) be + past participle

Passive infinitives have the same kind of meaning as other passive forms (see 412).

There's a lot of work to be done.   She ought to be told about it.

That window must be repaired before tonight.

Sometimes active and passive infinitives can have similar meanings, especially after a noun or be (see 287).

There's a lot of work to do / to be done.

4 combinations

Perfect progressive and perfect passive infinitives are common.

I'd like to have been sitting there when she walked in.

They were lucky - they could have been killed.

Progressive passive infinitives are possible but unusual.

What would you like to be doing right now? ~ I'd like to be being massaged.

Progressive perfect passive infinitives (e.g. It must have been being built at the time) are very unusual.

5 negative forms

Negative infinitives are normally made by putting not before the infinitive.

Try not to be late. (NOT USUALLY Try to not be late. OR Try to don't be late.)

You were silly not to have locked your car.

He's very busy. I'm afraid he can't be disturbed.

6 to

The marker to is normally used before infinitives (e.g. He wanted to go). Note that this to is not a preposition; after the preposition to we use -ing forms (see 298.2). For infinitives without to (e.g. She let him go), see 28l.

7 split infinitive

A 'split infinitive' is a structure in which to is separated from the rest of the infinitive by an adverb.

I'd like to really understand philosophy.

He began to slowly get up off the floor.

Split infinitive structures are quite common in English, especially in an informal style. Some people consider them incorrect or careless, and avoid them if possible by putting the adverb in another position.

He began slowly to get up off the floor.

For details of the use of infinitives, see the following sections.

For the use of to instead of a whole infinitive (e.g. I'd like to), see 182.

281 infinitives (3): without to

We usually put to before the infinitive (e.g. I want to know, It's nice to see you). But we use the infinitive without to in some cases.

1 after modal auxiliary verbs

After the modal auxiliary verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might and must, we use the infinitive without to.

I must go now. (NOT I must to go now.)

Can you help me?   Do you think she might be joking?

I would rather go alone. She will probably be elected.

We also use the infinitive without to after had better (see 230), and sometimes after need and dare (see 366, 151).

You'd better see what she wants.

She needn't do the washing up.   I daren't go out at night.

The to-infinitive is used after ought (see 403).

2 after let, make, hear etc

Certain verbs are followed by object + infinitive without to. They include let, make, see, hear, feel, watch and notice.

She lets her children stay up very late. (NOT She lets her children to stay... OR She lets her children staying ... )

I made them give me the money back.

I didn't see you come in.

We both heard him say that I was leaving.

Did you feel the earth move?

Help can also be used in this way (see 244).

Could you help me (to) unload the car?

This structure is also possible with have (see 238) and know (see 313).

Have Mrs Hansen come in, please. (especially AmE)

I've never known him (to) pay for a drink.

In passive versions of these structures (with make, see, hear, help and know) the infinitive with to is used.

He was made to pay back the money.

She was heard to say that she disagreed.

For more information about structures with let, see 322. For make, see 335.

For more information about see, hear, watch etc + object + verb, see 242.

For verbs that are followed by object + to-infinitive, see 283.

3 after why (not)

We can introduce questions and suggestions with why (not) + infinitive without to. For more details, see 628.

Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices.

Why stand up if you can sit down? Why sit down if you can lie down?

You're looking tired. Why not take a holiday?

4 after and, or, except, but, than, as and like

When two infinitive structures are joined by and, or, except, but, than, as or like, the second is often without to.

I'd like to lie down and go to sleep.

Do you want to have lunch now or wait till later?

We had nothing to do except look at the cinema posters.

I'm ready to do anything but work on a farm.

It's easier to do it yourself than explain to somebody else how to do it.

It's as easy to smile as frown.

I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children.

Why don't you do something useful like clean the flat?

Rather than is usually followed by an infinitive without to.

Rather than wait any more, I decided to go home by taxi.

5 after do

Expressions like All I did was, What I do is etc can be followed by an infinitive without to.

All I did was (to) give him a little push.

What a fire-door does is (to) delay the spread of a fire.

282 infinitives (4): after verbs

After many non-auxiliary verbs, we can use the infinitives of other verbs.

It's beginning to rain.

I don't want to see you again.

She seems to be crying.

I expect to have finished by tomorrow evening.

The car needs to be cleaned.

Common verbs that can be followed by infinitives (for more detailed entries on some of these, see Index):

afford | begin | fail | intend | prefer | seem
agree | care | forget | learn | prepare | start
appear | choose | go on | like | pretend | swear
arrange | consent | happen | love | propose | trouble
ask | continue | hate | manage | promise | try
attempt | dare | help | mean | refuse | want
(can't) bear | decide | hesitate | neglect | regret | wish
beg | expect | hope | offer | remember |

Some of these verbs can be followed by object + infinitive (e.g. I want her to be happy). For details, see 283. A few verbs are followed by verb + for + object + infinitive (e.g. I arranged for her to have violin lessons). For details of these, see 291.7.

After some verbs we can use not only an infinitive but also an -ing form (sometimes with a difference of meaning). For details, see 299.

After some verbs, it is not possible to use an infinitive. Many of these can be followed by -ing forms (see 296).

I enjoy sailing. (NOT I enjoy to sail.)

For perfect infinitives after verbs, see 288.

For have + infinitive (e.g. I have to go now), see 239.

For be + infinitive (e.g. You are to start tomorrow), see 9l.

For information about the structures that are possible with a particular verb, see a good dictionary.

283 infinitives (5): I want you to listen

Many verbs are followed by object + infinitive.

I want you to listen.

With some verbs (e.g. want, allow), a that-clause is impossible.

She didn't want me to go. (NOT She didn't want that I go.)

They don't allow people to smoke. (NOT They don't allow that people smoke.)

I didn't ask you to pay for the meal. (NOT I didn't ask that you pay for the meal.)

Some common verbs that can be followed by object + infinitive:

advise | forbid | love | request
allow | force | mean | teach
ask | get (see also 223) | need | tell
(can't) bear | hate | oblige | tempt
beg | help (see also 244) | order | trouble
cause | instruct | permit | want
command | intend | persuade | warn
compel | invite | prefer | wish (see 630)
encourage | leave | recommend |
expect | like | remind |

Let, make, see, hear, feel, watch, notice, have, and sometimes know and help are followed by object + infinitive without to (see 281).

Why won't you let me explain?

I heard her open the door and go out.

Some verbs cannot be followed by object + infinitive; for example suggest.

I suggested that she should go home. (NOT  I suggested her to go home.)

Many of the verbs listed above can also be followed by other structures such as an -ing form or a that-clause. For complete information, see a good dictionary.

For passive structures with these verbs, see 418.

For verbs that are followed by for + object + infinitive (e.g. I arranged for her to go early), see 291.7

For object + to be + complement after verbs of thinking and feeling (e.g. I considered him to be an excellent choice), see 607.

For structures with take (e.g. The ferry took two hours to unload), see 576.

284 infinitives (6): after adjectives

1 reactions and feelings: pleased to see you

Infinitives are often used after adjectives describing reactions and feelings.

I'm pleased to see you.

John was surprised to get Ann's letter.

She's anxious to go home.

We're happy to be here.

I was shocked to see how ill he was.

Most people are afraid to hear the truth about themselves.

Not all adjectives of this kind are followed by infinitives. Some are followed by preposition + -ing form (see 297), or by that-clauses (see 19). Some adjectives (e.g. afraid, sure) can be followed by either an infinitive or an -ing form, often with a difference of meaning: for details, see 299.

For structures with for (e.g. She's anxious for the children to go home), see 291-293.

2 other adjectives: certain to win

Besides adjectives referring to reactions and feelings, many other adjectives can be followed by infinitives. Examples: right, wrong, stupid, certain (see 299.15), welcome, careful, due, fit, able (see 3), likely (see 327), lucky.

We were right to start early.   Be careful not to wake the children.

I was stupid to believe him.   It's very likely to rain.

She's certain to win.   You were lucky not to be killed.

You're welcome to stay as long as you like.

For structures with preparatory it (e.g. It is important to get enough sleep), see 446.

3 superlatives etc: the oldest athlete to win ...

Superlatives can be followed by an infinitive structure. The meaning is similar to an identifying relative clause (see 495).

He's the oldest athlete ever to win an Olympic gold medal. (= ... who has ever won ... )

This structure is also common with first, second, third etc, next, last and only.

Who was the first person to climb Everest without oxygen?

The next to arrive was Mrs Patterson.

She's the only scientist to have won three Nobel prizes.

This structure is only possible when the noun with the superlative has a subject relationship with the infinitive.

Is this the first time that you have stayed here? (NOT ... the first time for you to stay here. Time is not the subject of stay.)

4 easy to please

Some adjectives can be used with infinitives in a special structure, in which the subject of the clause is really the object of the infinitive. Examples are easy, hard, difficult, impossible, good, ready, and adjectives after enough and too.

He's easy to please. (= To please him is easy. OR It is easy to please him.)

Japanese is difficult for Europeans to learn. (= It is difficult for Europeans to learn Japanese.)

His theory is impossible to understand. (= It is impossible to understand his theory.)

Are these berries good to eat?   The apples were ripe enough to pick.

The letters are ready to sign.   The box was too heavy to lift.

The structure often ends with a preposition (see 452).

She's nice to talk to.   He's very easy to get on with.

It's not a bad place to live in.

There is no object pronoun after the infinitive or preposition in these cases.

Cricket is not very interesting to watch. (NOT Cricket is not very interesting to watch it.)

She's nice to talk to. (NOT She's nice to talk to her.)

When the adjective is before a noun, the infinitive is usually after the noun.

It's a good wine to keep. (NOT It's a good to keep wine.)

Easy, difficult and impossible cannot be used in this structure when the subject of the clause is the subject of the following verb.

She has difficulty learning maths. (NOT She is difficult to learn maths.)

Iron rusts easily. (NOT Iron is easy to rust.)

This material can't possibly catch fire. (NOT This material is impossible to catch fire.)

For more about enough/too + adjective + infinitive, see 187, 595.

For so + adjective + infinitive (e.g. Would you be so kind as to help me?), see 538.8.

For information about the structures that are possible with a particular adjective, see a good dictionary.

285 infinitives (7): after nouns and pronouns

1 nouns related to verbs: no wish to change

We can use infinitives after some nouns which are related to verbs that can be followed by infinitives (e.g. wish, decide, need).

I have no wish to change. (= I do not wish to change.)

I told her about my decision to leave. (= I told her that I had decided to leave.)

Is there any need to ask Joyce? (= Do we need to ask Joyce?)

Not all nouns can be followed by infinitives in this way.

I hate the thought of getting old. (NOT ... the thought to get old.)

And note that not all related verbs and nouns are followed by the same structures. Compare:

- I hope to arrive.   - I do not intend to return.

There's no hope of arriving.   I have no intention of returning.

- She prefers to live alone.

I understand her preference for living alone.

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which structures are possible after a particular noun. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

2 nouns related to adjectives: You were a fool to agree

We can also use infinitives after some nouns which are related to adjectives, or which have an adjectival sense.

You were a fool to agree. (= You were foolish to agree.)

What a nuisance to have to go! (= How annoying to have to go!)

It's a pleasure to see you again. (= It's pleasant to see you again.)

3 purpose: a key to open the door

An infinitive can be used after a noun, or an indefinite pronoun like something, to explain the purpose of a particular thing: what it does, or what somebody does with it. The noun or pronoun can be the subject of the infinitive.

Have you got a key to open this door? (The key will open the door.)

It was a war to end all wars.

I'd like something to stop my toothache.

The noun or pronoun can also be the object of the infinitive.

I need some more books to read. (I will read the books.)

Is there any milk to put on the cornflakes?

Did you tell her which bus to take?   Is there anything to drink?

If the noun or pronoun is the object of the infinitive, we do not add an object pronoun after the infinitive.

I gave her a paper to read. (NOT ... a paper to read it.)

He needs a place to live in. (NOT ... a place to live in it.)

Some/any/nowhere can also be followed by infinitives.

The kids want somewhere to practise their music.

4 enough, too much etc

Quantifiers like enough, too much/many/little/few, plenty etc are often followed by noun + infinitive.

There was enough light to see what I was doing.

There's too much snow (for us) to be able to drive.

We've got plenty of time to see the British Museum.

Enough is often dropped before room and time.

There's hardly (enough) room to breathe in here.

Do you think we'll have (enough) time to do some shopping?

5 infinitive with preposition: a friend to play with

A noun can be followed by infinitive + preposition.

Mary needs a friend to play with.

He's looking for a flat to live in.

In a very formal style, another structure is possible: noun + preposition + whom/ which + infinitive.

Mary needs a friend with whom to play.

He's looking for a place in which to live.

This is not possible when there is no preposition. One cannot say, for example, I need a book which to read.

6 the life to come etc

In expressions like the life to come (= life after death), the world to come, his wife to be (= his future wife), the infinitive has a future meaning, and is similar to a relative clause with be (= the life/world that is to come, etc.)

For infinitives used to talk about people's purposes, see 289.

For passive infinitives (e.g. There's work to be done.), see 287.

For for + object + infinitive (e.g. Is there any need for us to stay?), see 291.5.

For infinitives after first, next, last or superlative + noun (e.g. the first woman to climb Everest), see 284.3.

For more about structures with prepositions at the end, see 452.

286 infinitives (8): who to ... , what to ... etc

1 indirect questions: Tell us what to do

In indirect speech (see 277.2), we can use an infinitive after the question words who, what, where etc (but not usually why). This structure expresses ideas such as obligation and possibility.

I wonder who to invite. (= ... who I should invite.)

Tell us what to do.

Can you show me how to get to the station? (= ... how I can get to the station?)

I don't know where to put the car.   Tell me when to pay.

I can't decide whether to answer her letter.

(BUT NOT I can't understand why to do it.)

2 direct questions: What shall we do?

We do not usually begin a direct question with How to ... ?, What to ... ? etc.

After question words, we often use shall and should.

How shall I tell her? (NOT How to tell her?)

What shall we do? (NOT What to do?)

Who should I pay? (NOT Who to pay?)

3 titles

How to ... , What to ... etc are often found as titles for instructions, information leaflets, books etc. (Note: these are not questions.)

HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR PRONUNCIATION

WHAT TO DO IF FIRE BREAKS OUT

For questions beginning Why (not) + infinitive, see 628.

287 infinitives (9): active and passive infinitive with similar meaning

1 obligation

We can use noun + infinitive to talk about obligation - things that people have to do. Active and passive infinitives are often both possible.

There's a lot of work to do / to be done.

There are six letters to post / to be posted.

Give me the names of the people to contact / to be contacted.

The people to interview / to be interviewed are in the next room.

We prefer active infinitives if we are thinking more about the person who will do the action.

I've got work to do. (NOT I've got work to be done.)

They've sent Jane a form to fill in.

We use passive infinitives if we are thinking more about the action, or the person/thing that the action is done to.

The carpets to be cleaned are in the garage. (NOT The carpets to clean ... )

His desk is covered with forms to be filled in.

After be, we normally use passive infinitives in these cases.

These sheets are to be washed. (NOT These sheets are to wash.)

This form is to be filled in in ink. (NOT This form is to fill in... )

The cleaning is to be finished by midday. (NOT ... is to finish ... )

2 to be seen/found/congratulated etc

Note the expressions anywhere/nowhere to be seen/found.

He wasn't anywhere to be seen. (NOT. .. anywhere to see.)

Susan was nowhere to be found. (NOT ... nowhere to find.)

We also use passive infinitives to express value judgements with verbs like congratulate, encourage, avoid.

You are to be congratulated. (NOT ... to congratulate.)

This behaviour is to be encouraged.

But note the common expression to blame, meaning 'responsible' (for some unfortunate event).

Nobody was to blame for the accident.

3 nothing to do and nothing to be done etc

Note the difference between nothing to do and nothing to be done.

I'm bored - there's nothing to do. (= There are no entertainments.)

There's nothing to be done - we'll have to buy a new one. (= There's no way of putting it right.)

For structures like She's easy to amuse, see 284.4.

For structures with take (e.g. The ferry took two hours to unload), see 576.

For more about be + infinitive, see 91.

288 infinitives (10): I'm glad to have left

1 perfect or past meaning

Perfect infinitives (to have gone, to have left etc) can have the same kind of meaning as perfect or past tenses.

I'm glad to have left school. (= I'm glad that I have left ... )

She was sorry to have missed Bill. (= ... that she had missed Bill.)

We hope to have finished the job by next Saturday. (= ... that we will have finished ... )

You seem to have annoyed Anne yesterday. (= It seems that you annoyed Anne yesterday.)

2 perfect infinitive for 'unreal' past

After some verbs (e.g. mean, be, would like), perfect infinitives can refer to 'unreal' past situations that are the opposite of what really happened.

I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot. (OR I meant to telephone ... )

He was to have been the new ambassador, but he fell ill.

I wish I'd been there - I would like to have seen Harry's face when Nan walked in.

With would like, would prefer and one or two other verbs, a double perfect infinitive is sometimes used in informal speech; the extra perfect infinitive does not change the meaning.

I would have liked to have seen Harry's face.

3 modals: He could have killed himself

After the modal verbs could, might, ought, should, would and needn't, we often use perfect infinitives to refer to unreal situations.

Did you see him fall? He could have killed himself. (He did not kill himself.)

You should have written - I was getting worried. (The person did not write.)

I would have gone to university if my parents had had more money. (The speaker did not go to university.)

She needn't have sent me flowers. (She did send flowers.)

Modal verbs with perfect infinitives can also refer to situations that are not unreal, but uncertain.

She could/should/ought to/may/will/must have arrived by now.

For more details, see the entries for the different modal verbs.

289 infinitives (11): purpose

1 I sat down to rest

We often use an infinitive to talk about a person's purpose - why he or she does something.

I sat down to rest. (NOT I sat down for resting / for to rest.)

He went abroad to forget.

I'm going to Austria to learn German.

To switch on, press red button.

2 in order to; so as to

We can also use in order to ... (more formal) or so as to ....

He got up early in order to have time to pack.

I watched him in order to know more about him.

I moved to a new flat so as to be near my work.

In order to / so as to are normal before negative infinitives.

I'm going to leave now, so as not to be late. (NOT I'm going to leave now, not to be late.)

A for-structure (see 291) can be used to talk about a purpose that involves action by somebody else.

I left the door unlocked for Harriet to get in.

290 infinitives (12): subject, complement or object

1 subject: To practise is important / It's important to practise

In older English, an infinitive clause could easily be the subject of a sentence.

To practise regularly is important.

To wait for people who were late made him angry.

In modern English, this is unusual in an informal style.We more often use it as a preparatory subject and put the infinitive clause later (see 446).

It's important to practise regularly.

It made him angry to wait for people who were late.

We can also use an -ing structure at the beginning of a sentence as the subject, instead of an infinitive clause (see 295).

Selling insurance is a pretty boring job. (More natural than To sell insurance ... )

2 complement: Your task is to get across the river

An infinitive clause can be used after be as a subject complement.

Your task is to get across the river without being seen.

My ambition was to retire at thirty.

Sentences like these can also be constructed with preparatory it (see 446).

It is your task to get across the river without being seen.

It was my ambition to retire at thirty.

3 object: I like to read the paper at breakfast

Many verbs can have an infinitive clause as their object (see 283). Compare:

- I like cornflakes for breakfast. (noun object)

I like to read the paper at breakfast. (infinitive clause as object)

- She wants some exercise.

She wants to dance.

For structures like He made it difficult to refuse, see 447.

291 infinitives (13): for ... to

1 infinitive with its own subject

The structure for + noun/pronoun + infinitive is very common in English. It is used when an infinitive needs its own subject. Compare:

- Ann will be happy to help you. (Ann will help.)

Ann will be happy for the children to help you. (The children will help.)

- My idea was to learn Russian.

My idea was for her to learn Russian.

- To ask Joe would be a big mistake.

For you to ask Joe would be a big mistake. (NOT You to ask Joe would be ... )

Note that the subject of the infinitive is the object of the preposition for. Object forms of pronouns are used.

Ann will be happy for them to help you. (NOT ... for they to help you.)

2 use

The structure is often used when we are referring to possibility, necessity or frequency, when we are expressing wishes, suggestions or plans for the future, and when we are giving personal reactions to situations. Like other infinitive structures, it is used especially after adjectives, nouns and verbs; it can also act as the subject of a clause. It often has the same meaning as a that-clause. Compare:

It's important for the meeting to start on time.

It's important that the meeting should start on time.

3 after adjectives: anxious for us to see ...

The structure for + object + infinitive can be used after certain adjectives which express wishes and other personal feelings about the importance or value of future events (e.g. anxious, eager, delighted, willing, reluctant).

adjective + for + object + infinitive

She's anxious for us to see her work.

I'm eager for the party to be a success.

Robert says he'd be delighted for Mary to come and stay.

4 It's impossible for ... to ...

For-structures with preparatory it (see 446) are common with many adjectives expressing possibility, necessity, importance, urgency, frequency and value judgements.

(...) it (...) + adjective + for + object + infinitive

It's impossible for the job to be finished in time.

Would it be easy for you to phone me tomorrow?

It's important for the meeting to start at eight.

It seems unnecessary for him to start work this week.

I consider it essential for the school to be properly heated.

Is it usual for foxes to come so close to the town?

I thought it strange for her to be out so late.

It's not good for the oil tank to be so close to the house.

Other common adjectives that are used in this way include vital, necessary, pointless, unimportant, common, normal, unusual, rare, right, wrong. Note that likely and probable are not used like this.

She's likely to arrive this evening. (NOT It's likely for her to arrive this evening.)

It's probable that she'll be in a bad temper. OR She'll probably be ... (NOT It's probable for her to be ...)

5 after nouns: It's a good idea for us to ...

The structure can also be used after nouns in expressions with meanings similar to the adjectives listed above. Examples are: time, a good/bad idea, plan, aim, need, request, mistake, shame.

It's time for everybody to go to bed.

It's a good idea for us to travel in separate cars.

There's a plan for Jack to spend a year in Japan.

Our aim is for students to learn as quickly as possible.

It was a big mistake for them not to keep John as manager.

It was a real shame for them not to win after all their work.

6 something for me to do

Something, anything, nothing and similar words are often followed by for + object + infinitive.

Have you got something for me to do?

There's nothing for the cats to eat.

Is there anybody for Louise to play with in the village?

I must find somewhere for him to practise the piano.

7 after verbs: ask for ... to ...

For-structures are not normally used as objects after verbs.

I need you to help me. (NOT I need for you to help me.)

However, verbs which are normally followed by for (e.g. ask, hope, wait, look, pay, arrange) can often be used with for + object + infinitive.

Anne asked for the designs to be ready by Friday.

I can't wait for them to finish talking.

Can you arrange for the gold to be delivered on Monday? (NOT ... for the gold being delivered.)

A few other verbs can be used like this, e.g. suit and take (time).

When will it suit you for us to call?

It took twenty minutes for the smoke to clear.

In informal American English, like, hate, mean, intend and some other verbs with similar meanings can be used with a for-structure. This is not usually possible in British English.

I would like for you to stay as long as you want.

She hates for people to feel sad.

Did you mean for John to mail those letters.

8 after too and enough

A for-structure is often used after too and enough.

This is much too heavy for you to lift.

There are too many people here for me to talk to all of them.

Do you think it's warm enough for the snow to melt?

I explained enough for her to understand what was happening.

9 as subject

The for-structure can be the subject of a clause.

For us to fail now would be a disaster.

For her to lose the election would make me very happy.

However, it is more common for a structure with preparatory it to be used (see paragraph 4 above).

It would make me very happy for her to lose the election.

10 for there to be

The infinitive of there is (there to be) can be used after for.

I'm anxious for there to be plenty of time for discussion.

It's important for there to be a fire escape at the back of the building.

11 that-clauses

Instead of for + object + infinitive, a that-clause with should or a subjunctive (see 567) is often possible, especially when we want to express wishes, recommendations, suggestions and plans for the future. A that-clause is usually more formal than a for-structure.

It is important that there should be a fire escape.

I'm anxious that the party should be a success.

His idea is that we should travel in separate cars.

It is essential that the meeting start at eight.

For sentences like He made it difficult for us to refuse, see 447.

292 infinitives (14): other uses

1 I came home to find ...

Infinitive clauses can be used to say what somebody found out or learnt at the end of a journey or task.

I arrived home to find that the house had been burgled.

The idea of surprise or disappointment can be emphasised by using only.

At last we got to Amy's place, only to discover that she was away.

He spent four years studying, only to learn that there were no jobs.

2 To hear her talk, you'd think ...

The infinitives of see and hear can be used to explain the reason for a false impression. The infinitive structure is usually followed by you'd think or a similar expression.

To see them, you'd think they were married. But they only met yesterday.

To see him walk down the street, you'd never know he was blind.

To hear her talk, you'd think she was made of money.

293 -ing forms (1): introduction

1 'participles and 'gerunds'

We can use -ing forms (e.g. smoking, walking) not only as verbs, but also like adjectives or nouns. Compare:

You're smoking too much these days. (verb: part of present progressive)

There was a smoking cigarette end in the ashtray. (adjective describing cigarette end)

Smoking is bad for you. (noun: subject of sentence)

When -ing forms are used as verbs or adjectives, they are often called 'present participles'. (This is not a very suitable name, because these forms can refer to the past, present or future.) When they are used more like nouns, they are often called 'gerunds'.

In Practical English Usage the expression' -ing form' is used except when there is a good reason to use one of the other terms. Noun-like uses of -ing forms ('gerunds') are discussed in the following entries. For their use to make progressive verb forms, see 470 and the entries on the present progressive, past progressive etc. Other ways of using -ing forms are discussed in 408-411 ('participles'), together with similar uses of 'past participles' (e.g. invited, broken).

2 perfect, passive and negative -ing forms

Note the structure of perfect, passive and negative -ing forms.

Having slept for twelve hours, I felt marvellous. (perfect)

She loves being looked at. (passive)

Not knowing what to do, I went home. (negative)

She's angry about not having been invited. (negative perfect passive)

For spelling rules, see 560~562.

3 -ing form or infinitive?

-ing forms are often used in similar ways to infinitives. For instance, they can follow certain verbs, adjectives or nouns (see 296-297). Compare:

- He agreed to wait.

He suggested waiting. (NOT He suggested to wait.)

- She's ready to listen.

She's good at listening. (NOT She's good to listen.)

- the need to talk

the idea of talking (NOT the idea to talk)

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which verbs, adjectives and nouns are followed by -ing forms, and which are followed by infinitives. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

Expressions with -ing forms can also be used as subjects in sentences, or as complements after be. Infinitives are also possible in these cases, but they are much less common in informal English. Compare:

Smoking cigarettes can kill you. (More natural than To smoke cigarettes can kill you.)

My favourite activity is reading thrillers. (More natural than My favourite activity is to read thrillers.)

4 'participles' and 'gerunds': an unclear difference

The distinction between 'participles' and 'gerunds' is not always clear-cut, and it can sometimes be difficult to decide which term to use. For this reason, some grammarians prefer to avoid the terms 'participle' and 'gerund'. For a detailed discussion of this point, see Section 17.54 of A Comprehensive

Grammar of the English Language, by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik (Longman 1985).

294 -ing forms (2): a waiting room; a waiting train

-ing forms can be used before nouns. This can happen both with noun-like -ing forms ('gerunds') and adjective-like -ing forms ('participles'). The two structures do not have quite the same kind of meaning. Compare:

- a waiting room (= a room for waiting. Waiting is a gerund, used rather like a noun. Compare a guest room.)

a waiting train (= a train that is waiting. Waiting is a participle, used rather like an adjective. Compare an early train.)

- a sleeping pill (sleeping is a gerund)

a sleeping child (sleeping is a participle)

- working conditions (gerund)

working men and women (participle)

295 -ing forms (3): subject, complement or object

1 Smoking is bad for you

An -ing form ('gerund') can be used, just like a noun, as the subject or complement of a verb.

Smoking is bad for you. (subject)

My favourite activity is reading. (complement)

Infinitives (e.g. To smoke is bad for you) are possible in these cases, but are formal and uncommon.

-ing forms can also be used as objects after certain verbs (see 296).

I hate packing. (object)

2 -ing form with its own object

The -ing form subject, complement or object is used like a noun, but it is still a verb and can have its own object.

Smoking cigarettes is bad for you.

My favourite activity is reading thrillers.

I hate packing suitcases.

3 the opening of Parliament; my smoking

We can often use determiners (for example the, my, this) with -ing forms.

the opening of Parliament

Does my smoking annoy you?   I hate all this useless arguing.

Possessive 's forms are also possible.

John's going to sleep during the wedding was rather embarrassing.

She was angry at Lina's trying to lie to her.

Subject pronouns are not possible.

His shouting gets on my nerves. (BUT NOT He shouting ... )

Note that possessives and pronouns are not used before -ing forms if it is already clear who is being talked about.

Thank you for waiting. (NOT Thank you for your waiting.)

When an -ing form is used with an article, it cannot usually have a direct object. Instead, we can use an of-structure.

the smoking of cigarettes (NOT the smoking cigarettes)

No is often used with an -ing form to say that something is not allowed, or is impossible. This often happens in notices and after there is.

NO SMOKING   NO PARKING   NO WAITING

Sorry - there's no smoking in the waiting room.

She's made up her mind; there's no arguing with her.

4 object forms: Do you mind me smoking?

In an informal style it is more common to use object forms (like me, John) instead of possessives (my, John's) with -ing forms, especially when these come after a verb or preposition.

Do you mind me smoking?   She was angry at Lina trying to lie to her.

After some verbs (e.g. see, hear, watch, feel) possessives are not normally used with -ing forms.

I saw him getting out of the car. (NOT I saw his getting ... )

5 It's nice being with you

We can use it as a preparatory subject or object for an -ing form (see 446-447).

It's nice being with you.

I thought it pointless starting before eight o'clock.

This is common with any/no good, any/no use and (not) worth (see 632).

It's no good talking to him - he never listens.

Is it any use expecting them to be on time?

It's no use his/him apologising - I shall never forgive him.

I didn't think it worth complaining about the meal.

6 nouns and -ing forms

When there is a noun which has a similar meaning to an -ing form, the noun is usually preferred.

We're all excited about his arrival. (NOT ... about his arriving.)

296 -ing forms (4): after verbs

1 verbs that can be followed by -ing forms

After some verbs we can use an -ing form ('gerund'), but not normally an infinitive.

I enjoy travelling. (NOT I enjoy to travel.)

He's finished mending the car. (NOT He's finished to mend ... )

She's given up smoking. (NOT ... given up to smoke.)

The doctor suggested taking a long holiday. (NOT The doctor suggested (me) to take ...)

Some common verbs that are normally followed by -ing forms:

admit | dislike | give up | practise
appreciate | endure | (can't) help | put off
avoid | enjoy | imagine | resent
burst out (crying/laughing) | escape | involve | resist
consider | excuse | keep (on) | risk
contemplate | face | leave off | (can't) stand
delay | fancy | mention | suggest
deny | feel like | mind | understand
detest | finish | miss | forgive
postpone |  |  |

Some verbs can be followed by both -ing forms and infinitives - see paragraph 4 below.

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which structures are possible after a particular verb. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

2 verb + object + -ing form

Some of the verbs listed above, and some others, can be followed by object + -ing form.

I dislike people telling me what to think.

I can't imagine him working in an office.

Nobody can stop him doing what he wants to

He spends all his time gardening.

Did you see her talking to the postman?

Stop (in an informal style) and prevent are often followed by object + from + -ing form.

Try to stop/prevent them (from) finding out.

Note that after many verbs we can use possessive + -ing form rather than object + -ing form, especially in a formal style. (See 295.3 for details.)

3 -ing form with passive meaning

After deserve, need and require, the -ing form has a passive sense. This structure is more common in British than American English.

I don't think his article deserves reading. (= ... deserves to be read.)

Your hair needs cutting. (= ... needs to be cut.)

In informal British English, want can also be used like this.

The car wants servicing. (= ... needs to be serviced.)

4 -ing form or infinitive

After some verbs, either an -ing form or an infinitive can be used. These include:

advise
forbid
hear
prefer
start

allow
forget
intend
propose
stop

can't bear
go
like
regret
try

begin
go on
love
remember
watch

continue
hate
permit
see

In some cases there is a difference of meaning: see 299.

For infinitives after verbs, see 282.

297 -ing forms (5): after nouns and adjectives

1 the idea of getting old; tired of listening

Some nouns and adjectives can be followed by -ing forms ('gerunds'). A preposition is normally used to connect the noun/adjective to the -ing form. Nouns/adjectives that are followed by -ing forms cannot usually be followed by infinitives (see paragraph 3 for some exceptions).

I hate the idea of getting old. (NOT ... the idea to get old.)

The thought of failing never entered his head. (NOT The thought to fail ... )

I'm tired of listening to this. (NOT I'm tired to listen ... )

She's very good at solving problems. (NOT ... good to solve ... )

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which nouns and adjectives can be followed by -ing forms. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

2 purpose: a machine for cutting

For + -ing form can be used after a noun, or after an indefinite pronoun such as something or anything, to explain the purpose of an object or material - what it is for.

A strimmer is a machine for cutting grass and weeds.

Have you got any stuff for cleaning silver?

I need something for killing flies.

This structure is mostly used to talk in general about types of object and material. When we talk about somebody's purpose in using a particular object, we are more likely to use an infinitive (see 207.2).

I must find something to kill that fly.

3 -ing form or infinitive

After a few nouns and adjectives, we can use either an -ing form or an infinitive. Normally there is little or no difference of meaning (see 299.13-16 for some exceptions).

We have a good chance of making / to make a profit.

I'm proud of having won / to have won.

For be used to ... ing, see 605.

For infinitives after nouns and adjectives, see 284-285.

298 -ing forms (6): without breaking; before starting

1 after all prepositions

When we put a verb after a preposition, we normally use an -ing form ('gerund'), not an infinitive.

You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. (NOT ... without to break eggs.)

Always check the oil before starting the car. (NOT ... before to start the car.)

We got the job finished by working sixteen hours a day.

He's talking about moving to the country.

They painted the house instead of going on holiday. (NOT ... instead to go ...)

2 to as a preposition: I look forward to ... ing

To is actually two different words. It can be an infinitive marker, used to show that the next word is an infinitive (e.g. to swim, to laugh). It can also be a preposition, followed for example by a noun (e.g. She's gone to the park, I look forward to Christmas).

When to is a preposition, it can be followed by the -ing form of a verb, but not normally by the infinitive. Common expressions in which this happens are look forward to, object to, be used to, prefer (doing one thing to doing another), get round to, in addition to.

In the following examples, note how the preposition to can be followed by either a noun or an -ing form.

- I look forward to your next letter.

I look forward to hearing from you. (NOT ... to hear from you.)

- Do you object to Sunday work?

Do you object to working on Sundays?

- I'm not used to London traffic.

I'm not used to driving in London.

- I prefer the seaside to the mountains.

I prefer swimming to walking.

- I'll get round to the washing up sooner or later.

I'll get round to doing the washing up sooner or later.

A few verbs and adjectives are used with to before nouns, but are followed by the infinitives of verbs. Examples are agree, consent, entitled, inclined, prone.

She agreed to our plan. / She agreed to do what we wanted.

He's inclined to anger. / He's inclined to lose his temper.

Accustomed can be followed by to + -ing form or an infinitive (see 299.11).

3 object + infinitive after for: for her to arrive

Note that some verbs are followed by for + object + infinitive. An -ing form is not usually possible in these cases.

We're still waiting for her to arrive. (NOT waiting for her arriving.)

Can you arrange for us to get tickets? (NOT for our getting tickets?)

For the difference between used to + infinitive and be used to + -ing form, see 604-5.

For -ing forms after conjunctions (e.g. When planning a holiday ... ), see 411.6.

For time clauses with on + -ing form, see 411.6.

299 -ing forms (7): remember, go on etc + -ing or infinitive

Some verbs and adjectives can be followed by either -ing forms ('gerunds') or infinitives.

I started playing / to play the violin when I was 10.

She was proud of having won / to have won.

With some of these verbs and adjectives, there is a difference of meaning.

1 remember and forget

Remember/forget + -ing form looks back at the past - at things that one did. Forget ... ing is used mostly in the phrase I'll never forget ... ing, and expressions with similar meanings.

I still remember buying my first bicycle.

I'll never forget meeting the Queen.

Remember/forget + infinitive looks forward in time - at things that one still has or still had to do at the moment of remembering or forgetting.

You must remember to fetch Mr Lewis from the station tomorrow.

I forgot to buy the soap.

2 go on

Go on + -ing form means 'continue'.

She went on talking about her illness until we all went to sleep.

Go on + infinitive refers to a change of activity.

She stopped talking about that and went on to describe her other problems.

3 regret

Regret + -ing form looks back at the past - at something that one is sorry that one did.

I regret leaving school at 14 - it was a big mistake.

Regret + infinitive is used mostly in announcements of bad news.

We regret to inform passengers that the 14.50 train is one hour late.

We regret to say that we are unable to help you.

4 advise, allow, permit and forbid

In active clauses after these verbs, we use an -ing form if there is no object. If there is an object we use an infinitive. Compare:

- I wouldn't advise taking the car - there's nowhere to park.

I wouldn't advise you to take the car ...

- We don't allow/permit smoking in the lecture room.

We don't allow/permit people to smoke in the lecture room.

- The headmistress has forbidden singing in the corridors.

The headmistress has forbidden children to sing ...

Note the corresponding passive structures.

- Smoking is not allowed/permitted in the lecture room.

People are not allowed/permitted to smoke in the lecture room.

- Singing is forbidden.   - Early booking is advised.

Children are forbidden to sing.   Passengers are advised to book early.

5 see, watch and hear

After these verbs, the difference between object + -ing form and object + infinitive is like the difference between progressive and simple tenses. With -ing forms the verbs suggest that one pays attention to events or actions that are already going on; infinitives usually refer to complete events/actions which are seen/heard from beginning to end. (Note that these verbs are followed by the infinitive without to.) Compare:

- I looked out of the window and saw Mary crossing the road.

I saw Mary cross the road and disappear into the post office.

- As I passed his house I heard him practising the piano.

I once heard Brendel play all the Beethoven concertos.

For more details, see 242.

6 try

To talk about making an experiment - doing something to see what will happen - we use try + -ing.

I tried sending her flowers, writing her letters, giving her presents, but she still wouldn't speak to me.

To talk about making an effort to do something difficult, we can use either try + infinitive or try + -ing.

I tried to change the wheel, but my hands were too cold. (OR I tried changing the wheel ... )

7 mean

Mean in the sense of 'involve', 'have as a result' (see 348) can be followed by an -ing form.

If you want to pass the exam it will mean studying hard.

In the sense of 'intend', mean is followed by an infinitive.

I don't think she means to get married for the moment.

8 learn and teach

These verbs (and others with similar meanings) are followed by -ing forms mostly when we are referring to lessons or subjects of study.

She goes to college twice a week to learn typing.

Mr Garland teaches skiing in the winter.

Infinitives are preferred when we talk about the result of the study - about successfully learning a skill.

She learnt to read German at school, but she learnt to speak it in Germany.

I taught myself to type.

9 like, love, hate and prefer

After these four verbs, both infinitives and -ing forms can often be used without a great difference of meaning.

I hate working / to work at weekends.

I don't get up on Sundays. I prefer staying / to stay in bed.

Like + infinitive is used to talk about choices and habits. Compare:

I like climbing / to climb mountains (= I enjoy climbing.)

When I pour tea I like to put the milk in first. (= I choose to; it's my habit.)

After would like, would prefer, would hate and would love, infinitives are most often used.

I'd like to tell you something. (NOT I'd like telling you something.)

Can I give you a lift? ~ No thanks, I'd prefer to walk. (NOT ... I'd prefer walking.)

Compare:

Do you like dancing? (= Do you enjoy dancing?)

Would you like to dance? (= Do you want to dance now?)

For more about like, see 325.

For details of structures with prefer, see 444.

10 begin and start

Begin and start can be followed by infinitives or -ing forms. Usually there is no important difference.

She began playing / to play the guitar when she was six.

He started talking / to talk about golf, but everybody went out of the room.

After progressive forms of begin and start, infinitives are preferred.

I'm beginning to learn karate. (NOT I'm beginning learning karate.)

Infinitives are also preferred with understand, realise and know.

I slowly began to understand how shefelt. (NOT ... began understanding ... )

He started to realise that if you wanted to eat you had to work. (NOT ... started realising ... )

11 attempt, intend, continue, can't bear, be accustomed to, be committed to

After these words and expressions we can generally use either an -ing form or an infinitive without much difference of meaning.

I intend telling / to tell her what I think.

I'm not accustomed to giving/give personal information about myself to strangers.

For details of structures with to + -ing, see 298.2.

12 -ing form or infinitive of purpose: stop

Some verbs that are followed by -ing forms can also be followed by an infinitive of purpose (see 289).A common example is stop.

I stopped running. (NOT ... I stopped to run.)

I stopped to rest. (= ... in order to rest.)

13 afraid

To talk about fear of things that happen accidentally, we prefer afraid of + -ing.

I don't like to drive fast because I'm afraid of crashing.

Why are you so quiet? ~ I'm afraid of waking the children.

In other cases we can use afraid of + -ing or afraid + infinitive with no difference of meaning.

I'm not afraid of telling / to tell her the truth.

14 sorry

Sorry for/about + -ing is used to refer to past things that one regrets. (That-clauses are also very common in an informal style.)

I'm sorry for/about losing my temper this morning. (OR I'm sorry that I lost my temper.)

Sorry + perfect infinitive (more formal) can be used with the same meaning.

I'm sorry to have woken you up. (OR I'm sorry that I woke you up.)

Sorry + infinitive is used to apologise for current situations - things that one is doing or going to do, or that one has just done.

Sorry to disturb you - could I speak to you for a moment?

I'm sorry to tell you that you failed the exam.

Sorry to keep you waiting - we can start now.

15 certain and sure

Certain/ sure of + -ing are used to refer to the feelings of the person one is talking about.

Before the game she felt certain of winning, but after a few minutes she realised it wasn't going to be so easy.

You seem very sure of passing the exam. I hope you're right.

Certain/sure + infinitive refer to the speaker's or writer's own feelings.

The repairs are certain to cost more than you think. (NOT The repairs are certain of costing ... )

Kroftoua's sure to win - the other girl hasn't got a chance.

Note that He is sure to succeed means 'I am sure that he will succeed'.

16 interested

To talk about reactions to things one learns, interested + infinitive is commonly used.

I was interested to read in the paper that scientists have found out how to talk to whales.

I'm interested to see that Alice and fake are going out together.

I shall be interested to see how long it lasts.

To talk about a wish to find out something, both interested + -ing and interested + infinitive are common.

I'm interested in finding out / to find out what she did with all that money.

Aren't you interested in knowing / to know whether I'm pregnant?

To talk about a wish to do something, we use interested with an -ing form.

I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you know anybody who could help me? (NOT I'm interested to work in Switzerland ... )

300 -ing forms (8): participles; progressive verbs

1 a crying baby

We can use -ing forms as adjectives before nouns.

I was woken by a crying baby.

There is growing anger at the government's policies.

When -ing forms are used like this, they are called 'present participles'. Their use is explained in 408-410.

2 not knowing what to do ...

Participles can be used in another way. They can combine with other words into 'participle clauses'.

Not knowing what to do, I telephoned the police.

Who's the girl dancing with your brother?

For details of participle clauses, see 411.

3 progressive verbs

Present participles are also used to make progressive verb forms.

It's raining. (present progressive)

She arrived just when I was leaving. (past progressive)

For details of progressive forms, see 470 and the separate entries on the present progressive, past progressive etc.

301 instead of

1 preposition: instead of

Instead is not used alone as a preposition; we use the two words instead of.

I'll have tea instead of coffee, please. (NOT ... instead coffee ... )

Can you work with Sally instead of me today, please?

Instead of is not usually followed by an infinitive.

I stayed in bed all day instead of going to work. (NOT ... instead of (to) go to work.)

2 instead of and without

Instead suggests that one person, thing or action replaces another. Without suggests that one person, thing etc is not together with another. Compare:

- Ruth was invited to the reception, but she was ill, so Lou went instead of her. (Lou replaced Ruth.) (NOT ... Lou went without her.)

Max and fake were invited, but Max was ill, so fake went without him. (Normally they would have gone together.)

- She often goes swimming instead of going to school. (Swimming replaces school.) (NOT She often goes swimming without going to school.)

She often goes swimming without telling her mother. (Swimming and telling her mother should go together.) (NOT She often goes swimming instead of telling her mother.)

3 adverb: instead

Instead (without of) is an adverb. It usually begins or ends a clause.

She didn't go to Greece after all. Instead, she went to America.

Don't marry Phil. Marry me instead.

302 inversion (1): auxiliary verb before subject

We put an auxiliary verb (and non-auxiliary have and be) directly before the subject of a clause in several different structures.

1 questions

Have your father and mother arrived? (NOT Have arrived your father and mother?)

Where is the concert taking place? (NOT Where is taking place the concert?) (NOT Where the concert is taking place?)

Spoken questions do not always have this word order (see 481).

You're coming tomorrow?

Indirect questions do not usually have this order (see 276).

I wondered what time the film was starting. (NOT ... what time was the film starting.)

However, in formal writing inversion is sometimes used with be in indirect questions after how, especially when the subject is long.

I wondered how reliable was the information I had been given.

For more information about questions, see 480-486.

2 exclamations

Exclamations (see 195) often have the form of negative questions (see 368).

Isn't it cold?   Hasn't she got lovely eyes?

In spoken American English, exclamations often have the same form as ordinary (non-negative) questions.

Have you got a surprise coming!   Was I mad!

In a rather old-fashioned literary style, inversion is sometimes found in exclamations after how and what.

How beautiful are the flowers!   What a peaceful place is Skegness!

3 with may

May can come before the subject in wishes.

May all your wishes come true!   May he rot in hell!

4 after so, neither, nor

In 'short answers' and similar structures, these words are followed by auxiliary verb + subject.

I'm hungry. ~ So am I.

I don't like opera. ~ Neither/Nor do I.

For more details of these structures, see 541 and 374.

5 after as, than and so

Inversion sometimes happens after as, than and so in a literary style.

She was very religious, as were most of her friends.

City dwellers have a higher death rate than do country people.

So ridiculous did she look that everybody burst out laughing.

6 conditional clauses

In formal and literary conditional clauses, an auxiliary verb can be put before the subject instead of using if (see 261.5).

Were she my daughter ... (= If she were my daughter ... )

Had I realised what you intended ... (= If I had realised ... )

Negatives are not contracted in this case.

Had we not spent all our money already, ... (NOT Hadn't we spent ... )

7 after negative and restrictive expressions

If a negative adverb or adverbial expression is put at the beginning of a clause for emphasis, it is usually followed by auxiliary verb + subject. These structures are mostly rather formal.

Under no circumstances can we cash cheques.

At no time was the President aware of what was happening.

Not until much later did she learn who her real father was.

The same structure is possible after a complete clause beginning not until ...

Not until he received her letter did he fully understand her feelings.

Inversion is also used after restrictive words like hardly (in BrE), seldom, rarely, little and never, and after only + time expression. This is formal or literary.

Hardly had I arrived when trouble started. (BrE)

Seldom have I seen such a remarkable creature.

Little did he realise the danger he faced.

Never ... was so much owed by so many to so few. (Churchill)

Only then did I understand what she meant.

Only after her death was I able to appreciate her.

Not only did we lose our money, but we were nearly killed.

Not a single word did he say.

Inversion is not used after not far ... and not long ...

Not far from here you can see foxes. (NOT Not far from here can you ...)

Not long after that she got married.

303 inversion (2): whole verb before subject

1 after adverbial expressions of place

When an adverbial expression of place or direction comes at the beginning of a clause, intransitive verbs are often put before their subjects. This happens especially when a new indefinite subject is being introduced. The structure is most common in literary and descriptive writing.

Under a tree was lying one of the biggest men I had ever seen.

On the grass sat an enormous frog.

Directly in front of them stood a great castle.

Along the road came a strange procession.

This structure is often used in speech with here, there and other short adverbs and adverb particles.

Here comes Freddy! (NOT Here Freddy comes.)

There goes your brother.

I stopped the car, and up walked a policeman.

The door opened and out came Angela's boyfriend.

If the subject is a pronoun, it goes before the verb.

Here she comes. (NOT Here comes she.)   Off we go!

2 reporting

In story-telling, the subject often comes after reporting verbs like said, asked, suggested etc when these follow direct speech.

'What do you mean?' asked Henry. (OR ... Henry asked.)

'I love you,' whispered Jan.

If the subject is a pronoun, it usually comes before the verb.

'What do you mean?' he asked.

304 irregular verbs

1 common irregular verbs

This is a list of the more common irregular verbs. Students should check that they know all of them. For a complete list, see a good dictionary.

Infinitive
Simple past
Past participle

arise
arose
arisen

awake
awoke
awoken

be
was, were
been

bear
bore
born(e)

beat
beat
beaten

become
became
become

begin
began
begun

bend
bent
bent

bet
bet, betted
bet, betted

bind
bound
bound

bite
bit
bitten

bleed
bled
bled

blow
blew
blown

break
broke
broken

bring
brought
brought

broadcast
broadcast
broadcast

build
built
built

burn
burnt/burned
burnt/burned

burst
burst
burst

buy
bought
bought

catch
caught
caught

choose
chose
chosen

come
came
come

cost
cost
cost

cut
cut
cut

deal
dealt /delt/
dealt /delt/

dig
dug
dug

do
did
done

draw
drew
drawn

dream
dreamt /dremt/
dreamed /dri:md/
dreamt /dremt/
dreamed /dri:md/

drink
drank
drunk

drive
drove
driven

eat
ate /et/
eaten /'i:tən/

fall
fell
fallen

feed
fed
fed

feel
felt
felt

fight
fought
fought

find
found
found

fly
flew
flown

forbid
forbade
forbidden

forget
forgot
forgotten

forgive
forgave
forgiven

freeze
froze
frozen

get
got
got

give
gave
given

go
went
gone/been

grow
grew
grown

hang
hung
hung

have
had
had

hear
heard /hɜ:d/
heard/hɜ:d/

hide
hid
hidden

hit
hit
hit

hold
held
held

hurt
hurt
hurt

keep
kept
kept

kneel
knelt
knelt

know
knew
known

lay
laid
laid

lead
led
led

lean
leant/leaned
leant/leaned

learn
learnt/learned
learnt/learned

leave
left
left

lend
lent
lent

let
let
let

lie
lay
lain

light
lit/lighted
lit/lighted

lose
lost
lost

make
made
made

mean
meant /ment/
meant /ment/

meet
met
met

pay
paid
paid

put
put
put

quit
quit/quitted
quit/quitted

read /ri:d/
read /red/
read /red/

ride
rode
ridden

ring
rang
rung

rise
rose
risen

run
ran
run

say
said /sed/
said /sed/

see
saw
seen

sell
sold
sold

send
sent
sent

set
set
set

shake
shook
shaken

shine
shone /ʃɒn/
shone /ʃɒn/

shoot
shot
shot

show
showed
shown

shrink
shrank/shrunk
shrunk

shut
shut
shut

sing
sang
sung

sink
sank
sunk

sit
sat
sat

sleep
slept
slept

slide
slid
slid

smell
smelt/smelled
smelt/smelled

speak
spoke
spoken

speed
sped
sped

spell
spelt/spelled
spelt/spelled

spend
spent
spent

spill
spilt/spilled
spilt/spilled

spin
span/spun
spun

spit
spat
spat

split
split
split

spoil
spoilt/spoiled
spoilt/spoiled

spread
spread
spread

stand
stood
stood

steal
stole
stolen

stick
stuck
stuck

sting
stung
stung

strike
struck
struck

swear
swore
sworn

sweep
swept
swept

swing
swung
swung

swim
swam
swum

take
took
taken

teach
taught
taught

tear
tore
torn

tell
told
told

think
thought
thought

throw
threw
thrown

understand
understood
understood

wake
woke
woken

wear
wore
worn

win
won
won

wind /waɪnd/
wound /waʊnd/
wound /waʊnd/

write
wrote
written

2 verbs that are easily confused

Infinitive | Simple past | Past participle
fall | fell | fallen
feel | felt | felt
fill | filled | filled
find (= get back something lost) | found | found
found (= start up an organisation or institution) | founded | founded
flow (of a liquid = move) | flowed | flowed
fly (= move in the air) | flew | flown
lay (= put down flat) | laid | laid
lie (= be down) | lay | lain
lie (= say things that are not true) | lied | lied
leave | left | left
live | lived | lived
raise (= put up) | raised | raised
rise (= go/get up) | rose | risen
strike (= hit) | struck | struck
stroke (= pass the hand gently over) | stroked | stroked
wind /waɪnd/ (= turn, tighten a spring etc) | wound /waʊnd/ | wound /waʊnd/
wound /wu:nd/ (= injure in a battle) | wounded | wounded

3 notes

• Says is pronounced /sez/.

• The old past participle drunken is used as an adjective in some expressions (e.g. a drunken argument, drunken driving), but these are not very common.

• Prove (regular) has an irregular past participle proven which is sometimes used instead ofproved, especially as an adjective (e.g. a proven liar).

• Speed can also have regular forms, especially in the expression speeded up.

• Sung and sunk are sometimes used instead of sang and sank.

• Burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill and spoil are all regular in American English. In British English, irregular past tenses and participles with -t are also common.

• Dive is regular in British English, but can be irregular in American: dive - dived/dove (/doʊv/) - dived

• Fit and quit are usually irregular in American English.

• The American past participle of get is either got or gotten (see 233.7).

• Spit has both spit and spat as past tense and participle in American English.

• Note the standard AmE pronunciations of ate (/eɪt/) and shone (/ʃoʊn/).

305 its and it's

These two words are often confused by native speakers of English as well as by foreign learners.

Its is a possessive word (like my, your).

Every country has its traditions. (NOT ... it's traditions.)

It's is the contracted form of it is or it has.

It's raining again. (NOT Its raining again.)

Have you seen my camera? It's disappeared. (NOT ... Its disappeared.)

There is a similar difference between whose and who's - see 627.

For more about contractions, see 143.

306 it's time

1 followed by infinitive

It's time (or it is time) can be followed by an infinitive.

It's time to buy a new car.

To say who should do something, we use for + object + infinitive (see 291).

It's time for her to go to bed.

2 followed by past tense with present meaning

It's time can also be followed by a subject with a past tense verb. The meaning is present.

It's time she went to bed.   It's time you washed those trousers.

I'm getting tired. It's time we went home.

The expression It's high time ... is often used in this structure in British English, to say that something is urgent.

It's high time you got a job.

For other structures in which a past tense has a present or future meaning, see 426.

307 just

1 meanings

Just has several meanings.

a) time

Just often emphasises the idea of 'at this moment' or 'close to the present'.

I'll be down in a minute - I'm just changing my shirt. (= right now)

Alice has just phoned. (= a short time ago)

Keith's still around. I saw him just last week. (= as recently as)

In expressions like just after, just before and just when, just suggests closeness to the time in question.

I saw him just after lunch. (= ... very soon after lunch.)

b) 'only', 'scarcely'

Just can mean 'only', 'nothing more than', 'scarcely'.

Complete set of garden tools for just £15.99!

I just want somebody to love me - that's all.

We just caught the train.

This meaning can be emphasised by only.

There was only just enough light to read by.

Can/Could I just ... ? can make a request seem less demanding.

Could I just use your phone for a moment?

c) 'exactly'

Just often means 'exactly'.

What's the time? ~ It's just four o'clock.

Thanks. That's just what I wanted.

She's just as bad-tempered as her father.

d) emphasiser

Just can emphasise other words and expressions, with the sense of 'simply', 'there's no other word for it'.

You're just beautiful.   I just love your dress.

2 tenses

When just means 'a moment ago', past and present perfect tenses are both possible in British English. A present perfect is preferred when we are giving news. Compare:

Where's Eric? ~ He's just gone out.

I've just had a brilliant idea.

John just phoned. His wife's had a baby. (The news is the baby, not the phone call.)

In American English a past tense is normal in all cases.

Where's Eric? ~ He just went out.

I just had a brilliant idea

3 just now

Just now can mean either 'at this moment' or 'a few moments ago'. Compare:

She's not in just now. Can I take a message?

I saw Phil just now. He wanted to talk to you.

When just now means' a few moments ago', two positions are possible:

a) in end-position, usually with a past tense.

I telephoned Ann just now.

b) in mid-position (see 24) with the verb, with a present perfect or past tense.

I'(ve) just now realised what I need to do.

308 kinds of English (1): standard English and dialects

'A language is a dialect that has an army and a navy.' (Max Weinreich)

'Dialect: A language variety that has everything going for it, except the government, the schools, the middle class, the law and the armed forces.' (Tom McArthur)

1 What is 'standard English'?

After King Alfred's victory over the Vikings in 878, the government of Southern England came to be established in London, which later became the capital of the whole of Britain. Because of this, the English spoken in London and the East Midlands was gradually adopted as the 'official' variety of English. And as time went by, this dialect (and its later developments, profoundly influenced by Norman French), became the 'standard' language - the form of English generally accepted for use in government, the law, business, education and literature. Standard English, like all standard languages, is therefore largely the result of historical accident. If the Vikings, who held the north of England, had defeated Harold's army, the capital of modern Britain might well be York, and this book would be written in (and about) a very different kind of English.

2 What is a dialect?

Many people think that dialects are corrupted forms of a language, spoken by ignorant people who make mistakes because they have not learnt correct grammar. This is not at all true (for more about correctness, see 309). A standard language is not linguistically 'better' than other dialects; it is simply the dialect that has been adopted for official purposes such as government and education. All English dialects have a long history, going back to the distinct forms of speech of the Germanic and Scandinavian invaders who came from various parts of northern Europe to occupy Britain during the Middle Ages. And each of these dialects has a grammar that is as rich and systematic as standard English, even though it may be very different. Some examples of English dialect forms:

I bain't ready. (= I'm not ready.)

He don't like it.   I wants a rest.

Where's them papers what I give you?

Can ye no help me? (= Can't you help me?)

They're not believing it.

She's after telling me. (= She's told me.)

Are youse coming or not? (= Are you - plural - coming or not?)

I ain't done nothing. (= I haven't done anything.)

3 pronunciation: dialect and accent; 'received pronunciation'

A dialect is not the same as a regional accent (though they often go together). Many British people speak standard English, but with the typical accent of their part of the country. Other British people, however, combine standard English with a non-regional standard pronunciation. This (the so-called 'received pronunciation' or 'RP') is the pronunciation that has traditionally been used by a majority of British upper- and upper-middle-class people, though it has changed a good deal over the years. For a long time RP was considered more 'correct' than other accents, and its social dominance was reinforced by education and the media. This attitude is now changing, and there is less social prejudice in Britain than before against regional accents.

4 showing accent in writing

Writers may spell words in special ways to show a non-standard or conversational pronunciation - for example, apostrophes may be used in place of letters that are not pronounced. These spellings are common in cartoon strips. Some examples (mostly BrE):

'e's gone 'ome. (= He's gone home.)

'elp yerself (= Help yourself.)

Yer gettin' old. (= You're getting old.)

If I get me 'ands on yer... (= If I get my hands on you ... )

Where d'she put 'em? (= Where did she put them?)

C'mon, we're late. (= Come on ... )

C'n I 'ave a glass o' water? (= Can I have a glass of water?)

fish 'n' chips. (= fish and chips)

Come wi' me. (= Come with me.)

I dunno. (= I don't know.)

I gotta go. (= I've got to go.)

It's gonna rain. (= It's going to rain.)

I don't wanna play. (= I don't want to play.)

Gotta, gonna and wanna are most common in AmE.

5 other standard forms of English

Standard British English is not, of course, the only standard form of English. American English also has a standard variety; this is different from standard British English in a number of ways (see 51). Other English-speaking countries, too, have their own standard versions of the language. Some of these are very close to British or American English; others (e.g. the developing Indian standard) are more clearly distinct.

6 What kind of English should learners study?

For most learners, the best model is one or other of the two main standard varieties: British or American English. Neither of these is 'better' than the other, and they are both used and understood worldwide. The differences are generally unimportant: for details, see 51.

7 international English

As English is used more and more as a language of international communication, it seems possible that a new form of international English may develop. This could be a 'super-standard', with characteristics of both British and American English. International English could turn out to be simpler in some ways than the modern standard varieties, without some of their less important grammatical complications. It will be interesting to see what happens.

309 kinds of English (2): correctness

When people say that somebody's language is 'not correct', they may mean several different things.

1 slips and mistakes

People sometimes make slips of the tongue when they are talking.

He works in Wildlife Conversation - I mean Conservation.

Somebody can use a word wrongly because he or she is unsure of its meaning, or confuses it with another word.

You're being very authoritative. (meaning 'authoritarian')

And many people have trouble with spelling and punctuation.

The firm has doubled it's profits this year. (should be its profits)

Foreign learners may also make mistakes with points of grammar that do not cause problems for native speakers.

I could not understanding the lecture. (instead of I could not understand ... )

2 dialect forms

Many people think that dialects are corrupt versions of the standard language, and that dialect forms are mistakes, made by ignorant people who have not learnt correct grammar. In fact, this is not at all true (see 308.2): dialects have their own systematic - but different - grammars. Teachers in British schools often tell children whose dialects have multiple negation, for example, that they are making mistakes if they say things like I ain't done nothing, because 'two negatives make a positive' (so I ain't done nothing is supposed to mean 'I have done something'). This is not, of course, the case: in the child's dialect, the sentence means 'I haven't done anything'. And if 'two negatives make a positive', then the teacher ought to be quite happy if the child says 'I ain't done nothing to nobody', since logically three negatives must make a negative!

Dialect forms are not, therefore, incorrect in themselves. They are, however, out of place in styles where only the standard language is normally used. It would be inappropriate - in fact, incorrect - to use I wants, he don't or a double negative in a school essay, a job application, a newspaper article or a speech at a business conference.

3 divided usage

Speakers of a standard language often differ about small points of usage. Where two different forms are common, people who use one form may claim that theirs is the only 'correct' usage, and that people who use the other form are making mistakes. Some examples from modern English:

so-called 'only correct form' | so-called 'mistake'
John and I went to the cinema. | John and me went to the cinema.
They're different from us. | They're different to us.
fewer people | less people
Somebody's dropped his or her keys. | Somebody's dropped their keys.
I'm unemployed at present. | I'm unemployed presently.

In fact, all of the so-called 'mistakes' listed above have been normal in standard English for centuries, and are not wrong at all (though some of them are more informal than the so-called 'only correct forms', and would be out of place in a formal style). For details, see 429 (I and me), 155 (different), 320 (less), 528 (their) and 467 (presently).

4 prescriptive and descriptive rules

If people say that less people or different to is wrong, they are following a prescriptive rule. Prescriptive rules are made by people who believe that they can improve a language, or protect it against change. A lot of prescriptive rules were made by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British grammarians, often because they thought that English grammar should imitate Latin, which was considered a superior language. A typical example is the rule that 'split infinitives' like to boldly go, where an adverb is put between to and the verb, are wrong (a Latin infinitive is a single word, so cannot be split). Many people still believe this, and try to avoid split infinitives, although the rule is unrealistic (see 280.7). A similar rule said that sentences should not end in prepositions (as in What are you waiting for? or I don't like being shouted at.). In fact, it is quite normal for English sentences to end in prepositions (see 452). Most prescriptive rules give misleading information, and have little effect on the development of a language.

Descriptive rules simply say what happens in one form of a language (for example standard written British English, standard spoken American English, Yorkshire English, Dublin English or Singapore English), and not what some people feel ought to happen. The rules in this book are descriptive of standard British English.

5 When do mistakes become correct?

When somebody misuses a word or expression, this may influence other people to make the same mistake. Sometimes a mistake becomes so Widespread that it becomes part of the language (this is one way in which languages develop), and we can no longer realistically call it a 'mistake'. The expression oblivious of, for example, originally meant 'forgetful of', but came to be used to mean 'unconscious of'. A hundred years ago this was still a mistake; now it is the normal use. The same thing is happening today with the expression a concerted effort. This means 'an effort by people working together', but some people now use it mistakenly to mean 'a strong effort'. If enough people follow the trend, this will sooner or later become the normal meaning, and the usage will have become correct.

310 kinds of English (3): spoken and written English

1 length and complexity; organisation of sentences

In writing, sentences can be planned in advance and revised, so there is time to build up complex structures. Spoken structures are usually simpler. Subjects, in particular, tend to be very short in speech. A typical written sentence:

The group of young people who were sitting at the next table were making so much noise that my friends and I found it difficult to continue our conversation.

In speech, we might say something more like:

There were a lot of young people at the next table. They were making so much noise we couldn't talk.

Written language is mostly made up of complete sentences. In conversation,

complete sentences are often unnecessary.

When are you seeing her? ~ Half past eight. ~ At your place? ~ No, at Andy's.

Spoken sentences are often more loosely organised than written sentences, and the information may be 'spaced out' more by putting some of it before or after the main sentence (see 514).

Last Wednesday it was, I was just going to work, ...

This guy who rang up, he's an architect. Well, he said ...

They work very hard, most of them.

'Fronting' - putting something other than the subject at the beginning (see 513) - is more common in speech than in writing.

People like that I just can't stand. Strange people they are!

2 structures

Some structures - for example, relative clauses with whom - are most common in a formal style. Since speech is more often informal, and writing is more often formal, these structures are most common in written English.

Other structures - for example, contractions like he's, can't - are typically informal, and are most common in speech. (For more about formal and informal language, see 311.) Some structures are common in speech, but hardly ever found in writing - for example, declarative questions (see 481):

You live with your parents?

certain conditional structures (see 262):

It would be good if we'd get some rain.

certain relative structures (see 498.16):

It's ridiculous to sing songs that you don't know what they mean.

and some kinds of ellipsis (see 179):

Couldn't understand a word.

Progressive and past verb forms are often used in speech in order to sound less definite or direct (see 436).

I was hoping you could lend me some money.

And structures whose purpose is to keep a conversation going (e.g. reply questions - see 484) are naturally only used in speech.

We had a lovely holiday. ~ Did you?

3 vocabulary

Written language often uses longer, less common words and expressions that are typical of a formal style (see 311), with a greater variety of synonyms. In speech, people usually prefer shorter, more common words, and they are more likely to keep repeating the same words. Phrasal verbs are common in speech, and are often replaced by more formal single words in writing. Compare:

I told him to get on the plane.

She instructed the man to board the aircraft.

311 kinds of English (4): formality

1 formal and informal language

Most people speak and write in different ways on different occasions. In some languages, for example, there are very complicated rules about how to speak to older or more important people. English does not have a system of this kind.

However, there are some words and structures which are mostly used in formal situations, when people are careful about how they express themselves: for example in official notices, business letters or reports, meetings or conferences, or polite conversations with strangers. And some words and structures are mostly used in informal situations: for example in conversations with friends, or letters to one's family. Writing is more often formal, and speech is more often informal, but informal writing and formal speech are used when the situation makes them preferable.

Customer toilets are at the rear of the building. (Printed notice in an Oxfordshire petrol station)

The toilets are outside round the back. (Handwritten notice in the same petrol station, put up perhaps because the manager felt this would be easier for some of his customers to understand.)

Most words and expressions are neither formal nor informal, but neutral - English speakers do not have to know two ways of saying everything.

2 grammar

Some grammatical structures have different formal and informal versions. For example, contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives (see 143) are common in informal speech and writing. Compare:

FORMAL: It has gone. It is not possible.

INFORMAL: It's gone. It isn't possible.

Prepositions come at the end of certain structures in informal language (see 452). Compare:

FORMAL: In which century did he live?

INFORMAL: Which century did he live in?

Some relative structures are different (see 495). Compare:

FORMAL: The man whom she married ...

INFORMAL: The man she married ...

Some determiners are followed more often by singular verb forms in formal language, and by plural forms in informal language (see 532.5). Compare:

FORMAL: Neither of us likes him.

INFORMAL: Neither of us like him.

Subject and object forms of pronouns (e.g. I and me) are used differently in formal and informal language (see 429). Compare:

- FORMAL: It was she who first saw what to do.

INFORMAL: It was her that first saw what to do.

- FORMAL: Whom did they elect?

INFORMAL: Who did they elect?

Ellipsis (leaving out words - see 177-182) is more common in informal language. Compare:

- FORMAL: Have you seen Mr Andrews?

INFORMAL: Seen John?

- FORMAL: We think that it is possible.

INFORMAL: We think it's possible.

3 vocabulary

Some words and expressions are used mainly in formal situations; in neutral or informal situations other words or expressions are used. And some words and expressions are only used in informal situations. Some examples:

- FORMAL:   commence

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   begin, start

- FORMAL:   alight (from a bus or train)

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   get off

- FORMAL:   I beg your pardon?

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   Pardon? Sorry? (AmE Excuse me? Pardon me?)

INFORMAL:   What?

- FORMAL:   repair

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   mend (BrE)

INFORMAL:   fix

- FORMAL:   acceptable, satisfactory

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   all right

INFORMAL:   OK

- FORMAL:   I am (very) grateful to you.

NEUTRAL/INFORMAL:   Thank you.

INFORMAL:   Thanks.

For structures used in polite requests and questions, see 435-7.

For formal and informal ways of using people's names and titles, see 363.

For the language used in particular social situations, see 545.

For taboo language, see 575.   For slang, see 533.

For the use of out-of-date grammar and vocabulary in ceremonies and other situations, see 392.

312 kinds of English (5): variation and change

Languages change over time. Younger people adopt newer forms of expression, while older people often resist change; so even people who speak the same standard language do not speak it in exactly the same way. There are several reasons for change.

1 communicative need

Several centuries ago, standard English had two second-person pronouns: thou (singular) and ye (plural). Modern English uses you for both. But people still feel the need to distinguish singular and plural, and so expressions like you guys (used for both men and women) are beginning to function as second person plural pronouns.

2 influence from other dialects

British English is heavily influenced by American English. Some structures which were not used by British speakers half a century ago are now as common as their older British equivalents.

I feel like I'm getting a cold. (Older British form: I feel as if I'm getting a cold.)

Do you have today's newspaper? (Older British form: Have you (got) today's newspaper?)

3 Languages simplify themselves

As languages develop, complicated structures often become simpler and more regular. This may be happening with English conditional sentences - structures with would or would have in both clauses are quite common in speech.

If you'd have asked I'd have told you.

4 Small, less important distinctions are confused or disappear

Some irregular verb forms like sank/sunk, sang/sung or lay/laid are quite often confused in speech. Examples from the British radio:

He wrote eight operas, all of which sunk without trace.
. . . a song she sung in yesterday's concert.

Infinitives and -ing forms after verbs also sometimes get mixed up. An example from a letter:

I now have pleasure to enclose the correct proposal form. (instead of ... pleasure in enclosing ... )

When confusions like these become widespread, they can lead to language change. This may well happen with the possessive's form: more and more people are leaving out the apostrophe or putting it in the 'wrong' place, so that this spelling convention might one day lose its importance and even disappear.

5 New forms and uses spread through the language

Progressive verb forms came into English a few hundred years ago, and gradually became used more and more widely. There are still a few verbs that are not generally used in progressive forms (see 471), but even these are losing their resistance. Some typical modern examples:

I'm understanding French a lot better now.

How many eggs were you wanting?

6 'Underground' forms become respectable

Some forms have always existed in the language, but have been 'driven underground' by prescriptive rules (see 309.4), so that they have been avoided by careful speakers. People are now more tolerant of such forms, so they are becoming more common. Some examples:

Here's your papers. (instead of Here are ... - see 532.4)

Somebody's left their umbrella behind. (instead of ... his or her umbrella - see 528)

John and me went to the cinema.   between you and I

7 Mistakes become part of the language

Sometimes a mistake is made by so many people that it becomes the normal form, and can no longer be called incorrect (see 309.5). This has happened with the word data. It was originally a plural, from a Latin word meaning 'given things', but it is now widely used as a singular uncountable noun. And recently people have started using between ... to instead of between ... and (e.g, There were between 50 to 60 people on the bus). This, too, could end up as a normal and correct expression.

8 Phonetically weak forms disappear

The weak form of have in I've got is so quiet that it is often not heard at all; and people are beginning to say I got instead of I've got. In time, this could become a new regular form.

9 some more examples of changes in modern English

• Who is replacing whom.

Who do you trust? (George Bush's 1992 election slogan)

• Will and would have now practically replaced first-person shall and should.

We will be in touch soon.   I would be grateful for some help.

• Subjunctive were is becoming less common.

If I was ten years younger I'd do the job myself.   I wish it was Friday.

• Some adverbs without -ly are becoming more common.

You pronounced it wrong.

• Comparatives and superlatives with more and most are gaining ground in two-syllable adjectives.

'Commoner' used to be commoner, but 'more common' is now more common.

• Plural noun modifiers are becoming more common. For example, antiques shop is now as common as antique shop, and drugs problem is replacing drug problem.

• The (very old) use of less with plurals is becoming more respectable.

There were less people than I expected.

• Some AmE prepositional uses and phrasal verb forms are moving into BrE.

The following trains will not run due to engineering work on weekends. (instead of ... at weekends.)

We met with the unions yesterday. (instead of We met the unions ... )

Can I speak with Cathy? (instead of ... speak to ... )

We haven't seen Granny in ages. (instead of ... for ages.)

You have to fill out this form. (instead of ... fill in ... )

• The AmE use of a past tense with just and already is becoming common in BrE.

Peter just went out. (instead of Peter has just gone out.)

I already told Jane about the party.

313 know

1 know how + infinitive

Know is not followed directly by infinitives. We use know how to (see 286).

I know how to make Spanish omelettes. (NOT I know to make ... )

2 object + infinitive

In a formal style, know is sometimes followed by object + infinitive.

They knew him to be a dangerous criminal.

The passive equivalent is quite common in a formal style.

He was known to be a dangerous criminal.

In a less formal style, that-clauses are more usual.

They knew that he was a dangerous criminal.

Know means 'experience' in the common structure I've never known + object + infinitive; an infinitive without to is possible in British English.

I've never known it (to) rain like this.

3 tenses

Know cannot usually be used in progressive forms (see 471).

I know exactly what you mean. (NOT I am knowing ... )

A present perfect tense is used to say how long one has known somebody or something. (See 460 for more details.)

We've known each other since 1994. (NOT We know each other since 1994.)

4 know and know about/of

Know + object is used mainly to talk about knowledge that comes from direct personal experience. In other cases, we normally use know about/of, have heard of or another structure. Compare:

You don't know my mother, do you? ~ No, I've never met her.

We all know about Abraham Lincoln. (NOT We all know Abraham Lincoln.)

5 know and find out etc

Know is not normally used to talk about finding something out: to know something is to have learnt it, not to learn it. To talk about getting knowledge we can use for example find out, get to know, learn, hear, can tell.

She's married. ~ Where did you find that out? (NOT ... Where did you know that?)

I want to travel round the world and get to know people from different countries. (NOT ... and know people ... )

He's from Liverpool, as you can tell from his accent. (NOT ... as you can know from his accent.)

6 I know and I know it

Note the difference between these two short answers.

I know refers to facts - it could be completed by a that-clause.

You're late. ~ I know. (= I know that I'm late.)

I know it generally refers to things - it replaces a noun.

I went to a nice restaurant called The Elizabeth last night. ~ I know it. (= I know the restaurant.)

For ways of using you know, see 157.

314 last, the last, the latest

1 last week, month etc; the last week, month etc

Last week, month etc (without the) is the week, month etc just before this one. If I am speaking in July, last month was June; in 2006, last year was 2005.

The last week, month etc is the period of seven/thirty/etc days up to the moment of speaking. On July 15th 2006, the last month is the period from June 16th to July 15th; the last year is the 12 months starting in July 2005. Compare:

- I was ill last week, but I'm OK this week. (NOT I was ill the last week ...)

I've had a cold for the last week. I feel terrible.

- We bought this house last year.

We've lived here for the last year, and we're very happy with the place.

The difference between next and the next is similar. See 375.

2 the last three ... etc

Note the word order in expressions with numbers.

I've been busy for the last three months. (NOT ... for the three last months.)

We generally say the last few days/weeks etc, not the last days/weeks etc.

The last few days have been busy. (NOT The last days ... )

3 the last in a series

The last can also mean 'the last in a series'.

In the last week of the holiday something funny happened.

This is going to be the last Christmas I'll spend at home.

4 latest and last

We can use latest to talk about something new, and last to mean 'the one before'. Compare:

- Her latest book's being published next week. (NOT Her last book ...)

She thinks it's much better than her last one.

- He's enjoying his latest job. (NOT He's enjoying his last job.)

But it doesn't pay as much as his last one.

For tenses with This is the last time ... etc, see 591.

315 later and in

With a time expression, we generally use later to mean 'after that time', and in to mean 'after now'. Compare:

She got married on her 18th birthday; six months later she was divorced.

Penny's coming on July 1st, and Colin will arrive about a week later.

I'll see you in a few days. (NOT I'll see you a few days later.)

But without a time expression, later can be used to mean 'after now'.

Bye! See you later!

316 lay and lie

There are three similar verbs that can be confused: lay (regular except for spelling), lie (irregular) and lie (regular).

1 lay

Lay is a regular verb except for its spelling. Its forms are:

infinitive: (to) lay   past: laid

-ing form: laying   past participle: laid

Lay means 'put down carefully' or 'put down flat'. It has an object.

Lay the tent down on the grass and I'll see how to put it up.

I laid the papers on the table. (NOT I lay ... )

Note the expressions lay a table (= put plates, knives etc on a table) and lay an egg (a bird's way of having a baby).

2 lie (irregular)

The forms of the irregular verb lie are:

infinitive: (to) lie   past: lay

-ing form: lying   past participle: lain (used mostly in a formal/literary style)

Lie (irregular) means 'be down', 'be/become horizontal'. It has no object.

Don't lie in bed all day. Get up and do some work. (NOT Don't lay ... )

I lay down and closed my eyes. (NOT I laid down ... )

3 lie (regular)

The regular verb lie (lied) means 'say things that are not true'.

You lied to me when you said you loved me.

4 dialect forms

In many British and American dialects, different forms of lay and irregular lie are used. Lay is often used in cases where standard English has lie.

I'm going to lay down for a few minutes. (Standard English ... lie down ... )

317 learn

1 forms

Learn is often irregular in British English (learn/ learnt) and normally regular in American English (learn/learned). For other verbs like this, see 304.3.

For the adjective learned (/'lɜ:nɪd/), see 18.

2 learn (how) to ...

To talk about consciously learning a method or technique for doing something, we can use learn to ... or learn how to ...

She enjoyed learning (how) to look after young animals.

It's time you learnt (how) to change the oil in the car.

When we talk about less conscious skills and other kinds of knowledge, we generally use learn to ....

Children usually learn to walk at around one year old.

In the new job, I soon learnt to keep my mouth shut.

318 least and fewest

1 the least as determiner: superlative of little

The least is used as a determiner before uncountable nouns; it is the superlative of little (= not much - see 329), and the opposite of the most.

I think I probably do the least work in this office.

The least can be used without a noun if the meaning is clear.

Jan earns the most money in our family; Pete earns the least.

We use the least of before plural abstract nouns to mean 'the smallest of'.

What will your mother think? ~ That's the least of my worries.

2 'any ... at all'

With singular abstract nouns, the least can mean 'any ... at all'.

Do you think there's the least chance of Smith winning the election?

What's the time? ~ I haven't got the least idea.

3 the fewest as determiner: superlative of few

The fewest is used before plural nouns as the superlative of few (see 329).

The translation with the fewest mistakes isn't always the best.

Least is often used instead of fewest before plural nouns (... the least mistakes), especially in an informal style. Some people feel this is incorrect.

4 (the) least with adjectives: the opposite of (the) most or (the) ... est

(The) least is used before adjectives in the same way as (the) most or (the) ... est (see 137), but with the opposite meaning.

The least expensive holidays are often the most interesting.

I'm least happy when I have to work at weekends.

For the use of the with superlatives, see 141.

5 least as adverb

Least can be used as an adverb (the opposite of most).

She always arrives when you least expect it.

I don't much like housework, and I like cooking least of all.

6 at least

At least means 'not less than (but perhaps more than)'.

How old do you think he is? ~ At least thirty.

He's been in love at least eight times this year.

We can also use at least as a discourse marker (see 157) to suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if everything else is unsatisfactory.

We lost everything in the fire. But at least nobody was hurt.

7 not in the least

We can use not in the least in a formal style to mean 'not at all', especially when talking about personal feelings and reactions.

I was not in the least upset by her bad temper.

For less and fewer, see 320.

319 left

The past participle of leave - left - can be used in a special way, to mean 'remaining', 'not used', 'still there'.

What did you do with the money that was left?

After the explosion, only two people were left alive.

Left is common after there is and have got.

There's nothing left in the fridge.

I haven't got any money left: can you get the tickets?

320 less and fewer

1 the difference

Less is the comparative of little (used especially before uncountable nouns).

Fewer is the comparative of few (used before plural nouns). Compare:

I earn less money than a postman.

I've got fewer problems than I used to have.

Less is quite common before plural nouns, as well as uncountables, especially in an informal style. Some people consider this incorrect.

I've got less problems than I used to have.

2 less/fewer with and without of

Less of and fewer of are used before determiners (like the, my or this) and pronouns.

I'd like to spend less of my time answering letters.

At the college reunions, there are fewer of us each year.

Before nouns without determiners, of is not used.

If you want to lose weight, eat less food. (NOT ... less of food.)

Fewer people make their own bread these days. (NOT Fewer of people ... )

3 less and fewer without nouns

Nouns can be dropped after less and fewer if the meaning is clear.

Some people go to church, but less/fewer than 20 years ago.

Less can be used as an adverb (the opposite of the adverb more).

I worry less than I used to.

4 lesser

Lesser is used in a few expressions (in a rather formal style) to mean 'smaller' or 'not so much'.

the lesser of two evils   a lesser-known writer

For little and few, see 329.

For least and fewest, see 318.

For the use of much, far, a lot etc with fewer and less, see 140.

321 lest

Lest has a similar meaning to in case (see 271) or so that ... not (see 543). It is rare in British English, and is found mostly in older literature and in ceremonial language. It is a little more common in formal American English.

They kept watch all night lest robbers should come.

We must take care lest evil thoughts enter our hearts.

Lest can be followed by a subjunctive verb (see 567).

The government must act, lest the problem of child poverty grow worse.

For more about older English, see 392.

322 let (1): structures

1 followed by infinitive without to

Let is followed by object + infinitive without to.

We usually let the children stay up late on Saturdays. (NOT ... let the children to stay / staying ... )

She didn't let me see what she was doing. (NOT ... let me saw ... )

Note the expressions let ... know (= tell, inform) and let ... have (= send, give).

I'll let you know my holiday dates next week.

Could you let me have the bill for the car repair?

Let go of means 'stop holding'.

Don't let go of Mummy's hand.

2 not used in passives

Let is unusual in passive forms; we prefer allow.

After questioning he was allowed to go home.

3 with object + preposition / adverb particle

Let can be followed by an object and a prepositional phrase or adverb particle expressing movement.

You'd better let the dog out of the car.

Let him in, could you? Those kids let my tyres down.

For more about infinitives without to, see 281.

323 let (2): introducing imperatives

Let can be used to introduce suggestions and orders, when these are not addressed to the hearer/reader (or not only to the hearer/reader). This structure can be considered a kind of imperative (see 268).

1 first-person plural imperative: let's ...

We can use let us (formal) or let's (informal) to make suggestions or to give orders to a group that includes the speaker.

Let us pray.   Let's have a drink.   OK, let's all get moving.

Shall we? is used as a question tag (see 487-488) in British English; let's can be used as a short answer.

Let's go for a walk, shall we? ~ Yes, let's.

Negatives are let us not / do not let us (formal); let's not / don't let's (informal).

Let us not despair. (formal)   Let's not get angry. (informal)

Do not let us forget those who came before us. (formal)

Don't let's stay up too late tonight. (informal)

2 first-person singular imperative: let me ...

Let me is used to 'give instructions to oneself'; the expressions Let me see and Let me think are very common.

What time shall we leave? ~ Let me think. Yes, Eight o'clock will be OK

What's the best way to Manchester? Let me see - suppose I take the M6.

Let me just get my coat and I'll be with you.

In a very informal style, let's is often used to mean let me (see also 429.6).

Let's see. Suppose I take the M6 ...

3 third-person imperative: let him ...

Let can also introduce a suggestion or order for someone or something else, not the speaker or hearer. This is common in formal and ceremonial language, but informal uses are also possible.

Let the prayers begin.

Let our enemies understand that we will not hesitate to defend our territory.

Your boyfriend's going out with another girl. ~ Let him. I don't care.

Note the structure with let + the infinitive of there is.

Let there be no doubt in your minds about our intentions.

324 life: countable or uncountable noun

When we talk about life in general, or about a kind of life, life is normally uncountable.

Life is complicated.   Ann enjoys life.

I think I would enjoy city life. (NOT ... a city life.)

When we describe particular people's lives, life is normally countable.

My grandmother had a hard life. (NOT ... had hard life.)

My mother's parents lived interesting lives.

For more about countable and uncountable nouns, see 148.

325 like: verb

1 not used in progressive forms

Like is not usually used in progressive forms (see 471).

What do you think of the soup? ~ I like it. (NOT ... I'm liking it.)

2 not used without an object

Like cannot normally be used without an object.

How do you feel about ballet? ~ I like it. (NOT ... I like.)

For exceptions, see paragraph 7 below.

3 very much: position

We can use very much with like, but not very alone.

I very much like ice cream. (NOT I very like ice cream.)

Very much does not come between like and its object (see 21).

I like you and your sister very much. OR I very much like you and your sister. (NOT I like very much you and your sister.)

4 like .. .ing: enjoyment

To talk about enjoying activities in general, we can use like ...ing (especially in BrE) or like + infinitive.

I really like walking / to walk in the woods.

Children always like listening / to listen to stories.

To talk about enjoying something on one occasion, we use like ... ing.

I really liked working with him on his boat last week.

Like + object + verb is possible.

I don't like people phoning / to phone me in the middle of the night.

5 like + infinitive: choices and habits

We can use like + infinitive to talk about choices and habits.

I like to do the shopping early on Saturday mornings.

When I'm pouring tea I like to put the milk in first.

Not like to can mean 'think it better not to'.

Why didn't you tell me before? ~ I didn't like to disturb you at home.

Like + object + infinitive is possible.

She likes the children to go to bed early during the week.

6 would like

We use would like + infinitive as a polite way of saying 'want', especially in requests and offers.

I'd like two kilos of tomatoes, please.

Would you like to dance? ~ Yes, OK (NOT Would you like dancing? ...)

Do you like ... ? is not used in this way.

(NOT Do you like some more coffee?)

Would like to can be used instead of repeating a whole infinitive (see 182).

How about playing tennis? ~ I'd like to.

Polite requests often begin If you would like ...; the following clause is sometimes dropped.

If you would like to take a seat, I'll see if Mr Smithers is free.

If you would like to come this way ...

Would is sometimes dropped in this structure.

If you like to come this way ...

For would like with a perfect infinitive (e.g. I would like to have seen that.), see 288.

7 if you like etc

When we offer people a choice, we often use like to mean 'want (to)' in subordinate clauses. Note that to is not used.

Can I go now? ~ If you like. (NOT If you like to.)

Do it any way you like.   Come when you like.

You can sit wherever you like.

326 like and as: similarity, function

We can use like or as to say that things are similar. We can also use as to talk about function - the jobs that people or things do.

1 like (similarity): like me

Like can be a preposition. We use like, not as, before a noun or pronoun to talk about similarity.

like + noun/pronoun

My sister looks like me. (NOT ... as me.)

He ran like the wind. (NOT as the wind.)

Like his parents, he is a vegetarian.

We can use very, quite and other adverbs of degree before like.

He's very like his father.

She looks a bit like Queen Victoria.

We can use like to give examples.

She's good at scientific subjects, like mathematics. (NOT ... as mathematics.)

In mountainous countries, like Peru, ...

2 as (similarity): as I do

As is a conjunction. We use it before a clause, and before an expression beginning with a preposition.

as + clause
as + preposition phrase

Nobody knows her as I do.

We often drink tea with the meal, as they do in China.

In 1939, as in 1914, everybody seemed to want war.

On Friday, as on Tuesday, the meeting will be at 8.30.

3 like I do (informal)

In modern English, like is often used as a conjunction instead of as. This is

most common in an informal style.

Nobody loves you like I do.

You look exactly like your mother did when she was 20.

4 inverted word order: as did all his family

In a very formal style, as is sometimes followed by auxiliary verb + subject(note the inverted word order - see 302).

She was a Catholic, as were most of her friends.

He believed, as did all his family, that the king was their supreme lord.

5 as you know etc

Some expressions beginning with as are used to introduce facts which are 'common ground' - known to both speaker/writer and listener/reader.

Examples are as you know, as we agreed, as you suggested.

As you know, next Tuesday's meeting has been cancelled.

I am sending you the bill for the repairs, as we agreed.

There are some passive expressions of this kind - for example as is well known; as was agreed. Note that there is no subject it after as in these expressions (see 581).

As is well known, more people get colds in wet weather. (NOT As it is well known ... )

I am sending you the bill, as was agreed. (NOT ... as it was agreed.)

6 comparison with as and like after negatives

After a negative clause, a comparison with as or like usually refers only to the positive part of what comes before.

I don't smoke, like Jane. (Jane smokes.)

I am not a Conservative, like Joe. (Joe is a Conservative.)

Before a negative clause, the comparison refers to the whole clause.

Like Mary, I don't smoke. (Mary doesn't smoke.)

Like Bill, I am not a Conservative. (Bill is not a Conservative.)

7 function or role: He worked as a waiter

Another use of as is to say what function or role a person or thing has - what jobs people do, what purposes things are used for, what category they belong to, etc. In this case, as is a preposition, used before a noun.

He worked as a waiter for two years. (NOT ... like a waiter.)

Please don't use that knife as a screwdriver.

A crocodile starts life as an egg.

Compare this use of as with like.

As your brother, I must warn you to be careful. ( I am your brother.)

Like your brother, I must warn you to be careful. ( I am not your brother, but he and I have similar attitudes.)

Note that as is usually pronounced /əz/ (see 616).

For comparisons with as ... as, see 136.   For alike, see 34.

For like used instead of as if, see 74.   For the same as, see 503.

For What ... like?, see 253.   For such as, see 508.6.

For like used to join two infinitive structures, see 281.4.

327 likely

1 meaning

Likely is an adjective with a similar meaning to probable.

I don't think a Labour victory is likely.   The opposite is unlikely.

What's a likely date for the election?   Snow is very unlikely.

Note also the informal adverb phrases very/most likely.

I think she'll very/most likely be late.

2 it is (un)likely + that-clause

We can use it as a preparatory subject or object for a that-clause (see 446.7).

It's likely that the meeting will go on late.

I thought it unlikely that she would come back.

3 infinitive after be (un)likely

Be + (un)likely is often followed by an infinitive.

I'm likely to be busy tomorrow.

Do you think it's likely to rain?   He's unlikely to agree.

328 link verbs: be, seem, look etc

1 common link verbs

Some verbs are used to join an adjective or noun complement to a subject. These verbs can be called 'link verbs', 'copulas' or 'copular verbs'. Common examples: be, seem, appear, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become, get.

The weather is horrible.   I do feel a fool.

That car looks fast.   She became a racehorse trainer.

The stew smells good.   It's getting late.

2 adjectives after link verbs

After link verbs we use adjectives, not adverbs. Compare:

He spoke intelligently. (Intelligently is an adverb. It tells you about how the person spoke.)

He seems intelligent. (Intelligent is an adjective. It tells you about the person himself - rather like saying He is intelligent. Seem is a link verb.)

3 other uses

Some of these verbs are also used with other meanings as ordinary non-link verbs. They are then used with adverbs, not adjectives. Compare:

The problem appeared impossible. (NOT ... impossibly.)

Isabel suddenly appeared in the doorway. (NOT ... sudden ... )

Other verbs used in two ways like this are look (see 331), taste (see 577) and feel (see 202).

4 change

Some link verbs are used to talk about change, or the absence of change. The most common are: become, get, grow, go, turn, stay, remain, keep.

It's becoming colder.   It's growing colder.

How does she stay so young?   Keep calm.

It's getting colder.   The leaves are going brown.

I hope you will always remain so happy.   The leaves are turning brown.

For the differences between these verbs, see 128.

5 other verbs followed by adjectives

Sometimes other verbs, too, can be followed by adjectives. This happens when we are really describing the subject of the sentence, and not the action of the verb. It is common in descriptions with sit, stand, lie, fall.

The valley lay quiet and peaceful in the sun.

She sat motionless, waiting for their decision.

He fell unconscious on the floor. (NOT ... unconsciously ... )

Adjectives can also be used in the structure verb + object + adjective, to describe the object of the verb.

New SUPER CUB washes clothes SUPER WHITE. (NOT ... WHITELY ... )

He pulled his belt tight and started off. (NOT ... tightly ... )

For the difference between adjectives and adverbs, see 26.

For cases like drive slow, think positive, see 27.2,4.

For more about structures after verbs, see 606.

See also the entries for particular link verbs.

329 (a) little and (a) few

1 uncountable and plural

We use the determiner (a) little with singular (usually uncountable) words, and we use (a) few with plurals. Compare:

I have little interest in politics.    Few politicians are really honest.

We've got a little bacon and a few eggs.

2 of after (a) little and (a) few

We use (a) little of and (a) few of before a pronoun or determiner (for example the, my, these - see 154).Compare:

- Few people can say that they always tell the truth.

Few of us can say that we always tell the truth.

- Could I try a little wine?

Could I try a little of your wine?

- Only a few children like maths.

Only a few of the children in this class like maths.

3 use of a

There is a difference between little and a little, and between few and a few.

Without a, little and few usually have rather negative meanings. They may suggest 'not as much/many as one would like', 'not as much/many as expected', and similar ideas.

The average MP has little real power.

Few people can speak a foreign language perfectly.

A little and a few are more positive: their meaning is generally closer to some. They may suggest ideas like 'better than nothing' or 'more than expected'.

Would you like a little soup?

You don't need to go shopping. We've got a few potatoes and some steak.

Compare:

- Cactuses need little water. (not much water)

Give the roses a little water every day. (not a lot, but some)

- His ideas are difficult, and few people understand them.

His ideas are difficult, but a few people understand them.

Quite a few (informal) means 'a considerable number'.

We've got quite a few friends in the village.

4 formal and informal language

Little and few (with no article) are rather formal. In an informal style (e.g. ordinary conversation), we generally prefer not much/many, or only a little/few.

Come on! We haven't got much time!

Only a few people speak a foreign language perfectly.

However, very little and very few are possible in an informal style.

He's got very little patience and very few friends.

5 (a) little and (a) few without nouns

We can drop a noun and use (a) little/few alone, if the meaning is clear.

Some more soup? ~ Just a little, please.

6 not used after be

(A) little and (a) few are determiners (see 154).They are normally used before nouns, but not after be.

They had little hope. (BUT NOT Their hope was little.)

7 (a) little with adjectives and adverbs

(A) little can modify comparatives.

How are you? ~ A little better, thanks.

The new model is little faster than the old one.

Little is not normally used to modify other adjectives or adverbs.

It's not very interesting. (NOT It's little interesting.)

A little can be used, like a bit (see 107), before adjectives and adverbs with a critical or negative meaning.

You must forgive her - she's a little confused.

They arrived a little late.

Note also the expression little known.

He's studying the work of a little known German novelist.

For less and fewer, see 320.

For the adjective little, see 534.

330 long and (for) a long time

1 long in questions and negatives

Long (meaning' (for) a long time') is most common in questions and negative clauses, and with restrictive words like hardly, seldom.

Have you been waiting long?

It doesn't take long to get to her house.   She seldom stays long.

2 (for) a long time in affirmative clauses

In affirmative clauses we usually prefer (for) a long time.

I waited (for) a long time, but she didn't arrive. (NOT I waited long ... )

It takes a long time to get to her house. (NOT It takes long ... )

3 long in affirmative clauses

However, long is used in affirmative clauses with too, enough, as and so, and in a few other common expressions.

The meeting went on much too long.

I've been working here long enough. Time to get a new job.

You can stay as long as you want.

Sorry I took so long.   I'll be back before long.

She sits dreaming all day long. (also all night/week/year long)

Long is also used in affirmative clauses to modify adverbs and conjunctions.

We used to live in Paris, but that was long before you were born.

Long after the accident he used to dream that he was dying.

Long ago, in a distant country, there lived a beautiful princess. (rather formal)

4 for a long time in negative clauses

When for a long time is used in a negative clause, it sometimes has a different meaning from for long. Compare:

- She didn't speak for long. (= She only spoke for a short time.)

She didn't speak for a long time. (= She was silent for a long time.)

- He didn't work for long. (= He soon stopped working.)

He didn't work for a long time. (= He was unemployed for a long time.)

The reason for the difference is to do with the 'scope of negation': in the first and third sentences, not goes with for long, but in the second and fourth for a long time is outside the influence of not (it could go at the beginning of the clause).

5 How long are you here for?

Questions like How long are you here for? refer to the future. Compare:

How long are you here for? ~ Until the end of next week.

How long have you been here for? ~ Since last Monday.

6 comparative

The comparative of for a long time is (for) longer.

I hope you'll stay longer next time. (NOT ... for a longer time.)

For no longer, see 379.

Much, many and far are also more common in questions and negative clauses (see 357 and 200).

331 look

1 link verb (= 'seem')

Look can mean 'seem' or 'appear'. In this case it is a link verb (see 328) and can be followed by adjectives or nouns.

You look angry - what's the matter? (NOT You look angrily ... )

I looked a real fool when I fell in the river.

The garden looks a mess.

To talk about a temporary appearance, we can use simple or progressive forms; there is not much difference of meaning.

You look / You're looking very unhappy. What's the matter?

Look can be followed by like or as if (see 74). Progressive forms are not usually used in this case.

She looks like her mother.

It looks as if it's going to rain. (NOT It's looking as if ... )

She looks as if she's dreaming.

She looks like she's dreaming. (informal) (NOT She looks like dreaming.)

Look like ... ing ... (informal) is used with future reference in British English.

It looks like being a wet night. (= It looks as if it will be ... )

Look + infinitive is also sometimes used in informal British English.

The team look to repeat their success. (= It looks as if they will ... )

2 ordinary verb = ('direct one's eyes')

When look means 'direct one's eyes', it is used with adverbs, not adjectives. Before an object, a preposition is necessary (usually at).

The boss looked at me angrily. (NOT The boss looked at me angry.)

A preposition is not used when there is no object.

Look! It's changing colour. (NOT Look at! ... )

3 not followed by if

Before if or whether, we use see or look to see, not look.

Could you see if Ann's in the kitchen? (NOT Could you look if Ann's in the kitchen?)

What are you doing? ~ I'm looking to see whether these batteries are OK. (NOT I'm looking whether ... )

4 look after and look for; fetch

These are not the same. Look after means 'take care of'; look for means 'try to find'. Compare:

Could you look after the kids while I go shopping?

I spent ages looking for her before I found her.

We use fetch, not look for, if we know where people or things are.

I'm going to the station at three o'clock to fetch Daniel. (NOT ... to look for Daniel.)

For other uses of look, see a good dictionary.

For the difference between look (at), watch and see, see 506.

For Look! and Look here! used in arguments, see 157.19.

332 lose and loose

Lose (pronounced /lu:z/) is an irregular verb (lose - lost - lost).

Loose (pronounced /lu:s/) is an adjective (the opposite of tight).

I must be losing weight - my clothes all feel loose. (NOT I must be loosing weight ... )

333 [a] lot, lots, plenty, a great deal, a large amount, a large number, the majority

1 introduction; use of of

These expressions have similar meanings to the determiners much, many and most, but the grammar is not quite the same. In particular, of is used after these expressions even before nouns with no determiner. Compare:

- There's not a lot of meat left. (NOT There's not a lot meat left.)

There's not much meat left. (NOT There's not much of meat left.)

- Plenty of shops open on Sunday mornings. (NOT Plenty shops ... )

Many shops open on Sunday mornings. (NOT Many of shops ... )

For much, many and most with and without of, and other details of their use, see 356-357.

2 a lot of and lots of

These are rather informal. In a more formal style, we prefer a great deal of, a large number of, much or many. (Much and many are used mostly in questions and negative clauses - see 357.) There is not much difference between a lot of and lots of they are both used mainly before singular uncountable and plural nouns, and before pronouns. It is the subject, and not the form lot/lots, that makes a following verb singular or plural. So when a lot of is used before a plural subject, the verb is plural; when lots of is used before a singular subject, the verb is singular.

A lot of time is needed to learn a language.

Lots of patience is needed, too. (NOT Lots of patience are needed, too.)

A lot of my friends want to emigrate. (NOT A lot of my friends wants ... )

Lots of us think it's time for an election.

3 plenty of

Plenty of is usually rather informal. It is used mostly before singular uncountables and plurals. It suggests 'enough and more'.

Don't rush. There's plenty of time.   Plenty of shops take cheques.

4 a great deal of, a large amount of and a large number of

These are used in similar ways to a lot of and lots of, but are more formal. A great deal of and a large amount of are generally used with uncountable nouns.

Mr Lucas has spent a great deal of time in the Far East.

I've thrown out a large amount of old clothing.

A large number of is used before plurals, and a following verb is plural.

A large number of problems still have to be solved. (More natural than A large amount of problems ... or A great deal of problems ... )

5 the majority of

The majority of (= 'most' or 'most of') is mostly used with plural nouns and verbs.

The majority of criminals are non-violent.

6 measurement nouns

These expressions are not generally used before words for units of measure, like pounds, years or miles. Other words have to be used.

It cost several pounds. (NOT It cost a lot of pounds.)

They lived many miles from the town. (NOT They lived plenty of miles from the town.)

7 use without following nouns

These expressions can be used without nouns if the meaning is clear. In this case, of is not used.

How much did it cost? ~ A lot. (= A lot of money.)

We should be all right for cheese - I've bought plenty.

He does not often speak, but when he does he says a great deal.

8 use as adverbs

A lot and a great deal can be used as adverbs.

On holiday we walk and swim a lot. (BUT NOT ... we walk plenty OR ... swim lots.)

The government seems to change its mind a great deal.

334 loudly and aloud

Loudly is used (like loud) to talk about the strength of a noise. The opposite is quietly.

They were talking so loudly I couldn't hear myself think.

Aloud is often used with the words read and think, to say that words are spoken, and not just 'said' silently in the head.

She has a very good pronunciation when she reads aloud.

What did you say? ~ Oh, nothing. I was just thinking aloud.

335 make: causative structures

1 object + infinitive

After make + object, we use the infinitive without to (see 281).

I made her cry. (NOT I made her to cry. OR I made her crying.)

Note that the infinitive must follow the object.

I can't make the washing machine work. (NOT I can't make work the washing machine.)

In passive structures the infinitive with to is used.

She was made to repeat the whole story.

2 make oneself understood, etc

In a few cases make can be followed by myself, yourself etc and a past participle. The structure is common with understood and heard.

I don't speak good French, but I can make myself understood. (NOT ... make myself understand.)

She had to shout to make herself heard.

3 with object + object complement: make people welcome etc

We can talk about an effect or change with make + object + adjective/noun (see 607).

She made everybody welcome.

The rain made the grass wet. (NOT The rain made wet the grass.)

We do not use make ... be in this structure.

You have made me a happy man. (NOT You have made me be a happy man.)

For other structures and the difference between make and do, see 160.

336 make: prepositions

We usually say that something is made of a particular material.

Most things seem to be made of plastic these days.

All our furniture is made of wood.

When a material is changed into a completely different form to make something, we often use make from.

Paper is made from wood. (NOT Paper is made of wood.)

When we talk about the process of manufacture, we can also use out of.

He made all the window-frames out of oak; it took a long time.

To mention one of several materials (e.g. in cooking), we can use make with.

The soup's good. ~ Yes, I make it with lots of garlic.

337 marry and divorce

1 get married/divorced

In an informal style, get married and get divorced are more common than marry and divorce when there is no object.

Lulu and Joe got married last week. (Lulu and Joe married ... is more formal.)

The Robinsons are getting divorced.

In a more formal style, marry and divorce are preferred.

Although she had many lovers, she never married.

After three very unhappy years they divorced.

2 no preposition before object

Before a direct object, marry and divorce are used without prepositions.

She married a builder. (NOT She married with a builder.)

Andrew's going to divorce Carola.

3 get/be married to

We can also use get/be married to with an object.

She got married to her childhood sweetheart.

I've been married to you for 25 years and I still don't understand you.

338 may and might (1): introduction

1 grammar

May and might are modal auxiliary verbs (see 353-354).

a) There is no -s in the third person singular.

She may be here tomorrow. (NOT She mays ... )

It might rain this afternoon.

b) Questions and negatives are made without do.

May I help you? (NOT Do I may ... )

We might not be home before midnight.

c) After may and might we use the infinitive of other verbs, without to.

You may be right. (NOT You may to be right.)

She might not want to come with us.

d) May and might do not have infinitives or participles (to may, maying, mighted do not exist). When necessary, we use other words.

She wants to be allowed to open a bank account. (NOT ... to may open ... )

e) Might does not normally have a past meaning. It is used in the same way as may to talk about the present and future. The difference is that might usually refers to situations which are less probable or less definite (see 339.2 and 340.1). Might also replaces may in past indirect speech (see 275).

f) However, certain past ideas can be expressed by may or might followed by a perfect infinitive (have + past participle).

She's late. I think she may have missed the train.

Why did you do that? You might have killed yourself

g) Might has a contracted negative mightn't (see 143). Mayn't is very unusual.

2 meanings

May and might are used mainly to talk about the chances of something happening, and to ask for and give permission (especially in a more formal style).

I may see you tomorrow.

Do you think I might borrow your typewriter?

Can and could are often used in similar ways to may and might. For the main differences, see 345.

For may and might after so that and in order that, see 543.

339 may and might (2): chances etc

1 chances: You may be right; We may go climbing

We often use may and might to talk about the chance (possibility) that something will happen, or is happening.

We may go climbing in the Alps next summer.

Peter might phone. If he does, ask him to ring later.

I think Labour are going to win. ~ You may be right.

Where's Emma? ~ I don't know. She might be out shopping, I suppose.

May well and might well suggest stronger possibilities.

I think it's going to rain. ~ You may well be right - the sky's really black.

2 may and might: the difference

Might is not often used as a past form of may: both may and might are used to talk about the present or future. Might is mostly used as a less definite or more hesitant form of may, suggesting a smaller chance - it is used when people think something is possible but not very likely. Compare:

I may go to London tomorrow. (perhaps a 50% chance)

Joe might come with me. (perhaps a 30% chance)

3 questions: may not used

May is not normally used to ask about the chance of something happening.

Are you likely to go camping this summer? (NOT May you go camping ... ?)

Has Emma gone shopping, I wonder? (NOT May Emma have gone shopping?)

But may is possible in indirect questions (for example after Do you think).

Do you think you may go camping this summer?

Might can be used in direct questions, but this is rather formal.

Might you go camping? (less natural than Do you think you may/might ... ?)

4 two negatives: may/might not and can't

There are two ways to make may/might negative: with may/might not (= It is possible that ... not ... ) and with can't (= It is not possible that ... ) Compare:

- She may be at home. (= Perhaps she is at home.)

She may not be at home. (= Perhaps she is not at home.)

She can't be at home. (= She is certainly not at home.)

- You might win. (= Perhaps you will win.)

You might not win. (= Perhaps you won't win.)

You can't win. (= You certainly won't win.)

5 might meaning 'would perhaps'

Might (but not may) can have a conditional meaning (= would perhaps).

If you went to bed for an hour, you might feel better. (= ... perhaps you would feel better.)

Don't play with knives. You might get hurt. (= Perhaps you would get hurt.)

6 indirect speech: might

Might is used in past indirect speech when may was used in direct speech.

I may go to Scotland. ~ What? ~ I said I might go to Scotland.

7 past: might + infinitive not used

Might + infinitive is not normally used to talk about past possibility (except in indirect speech).

I felt very hot and tired. Perhaps I was ill. (NOT ... I might be ill.)

8 may/might have ... : She may have missed her train

However, to say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past, we can use may/might have + past participle.

Polly's very late. ~ She may have missed her train. (= It is possible that she missed ... )

What was that noise? ~ It might have been a cat.

May/might have ... can sometimes refer to the present or future.

I'll try phoning him, but he may have gone out by now.

By the end of this year I might have saved some money.

9 might have ... : You might have killed yourself

To say that something was possible but did not happen, we can use might have ...

You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself

If she hadn't been so bad-tempered, I might have married her.

May have ... is now sometimes used with this meaning too; some people feel that this is not correct.

You were stupid to try climbing up there. You may have killed yourself (More normal: ... You might have killed yourself)

For might have ... used to criticise people for not doing things, see 344.

For the use of could have + past participle in similar senses, see 124.7.

10 another use of may/might: typical occurrences

In scientific and academic language, may is often used to talk about typical occurrences - things that can happen in certain situations.

A female crocodile may lay 30-40 eggs.

The flowers may have five or six petals, pink or red in colour.

Children of divorced parents may have difficulty with relationships.

With this meaning, might can be used to talk about the past.

In those days, a man might be hanged for stealing a sheep.

Can and could are used in a similar way, but are less formal. See 122.2,4.

340 may and might (3): permission

May and might are used for permission mostly in a formal style. They are much less common than can and could.

1 asking for permission: May I put the TV on?

May and might can both be used to ask for permission. Might is very polite and formal, and is mostly used in indirect question structures.

May I put the TV on?

I wonder if I might have a little more cheese. (More natural than Might I have ... ?)

2 giving and refusing permission: You may / You may not

May is used to give permission; may not to refuse permission or forbid.

May I put the TV on? ~ Yes, of course you may.

May I borrow the car? ~ No, I'm afraid you may not.

Students may not use the staff car park.

Must not is also used to forbid (see 360.3). It is a little stronger or more emphatic than may not.

Students must not use the staff car park.

3 talking about permission

We do not usually use may and might to talk about permission which has already been given or refused, about freedom which people already have, or about rules and laws. Instead, we use can, could or be allowed.

These days, children can / are allowed to do what they like. (NOT ... children may do what they like.)

I could / was allowed to read what I liked when I was a child. (NOT I might read what I liked ... )

Can you / Are you allowed to park on both sides of the road here? (More natural than May you park ... ?)

4 indirect speech

However, may and might can be used to report the giving of permission. May is used after present reporting verbs, and might after past verbs.

The Manager says that we may leave our coats in the downstairs toilet.

What are you doing here? ~ Peter said that I might look round. (very formal)

341 may and might (4): may in wishes and hopes

May (but not might) is used in formal expressions of wishes and hopes.

I hope that the young couple may enjoy many years of happiness together.

Let us pray that peace may soon return to our troubled land.

May often comes at the beginning of the sentence.

May you both be very happy!   May God be with you.

May the New Year bring you all your heart desires.

May she rest in peace. (prayer for a dead person)

342 may and might (5): may/might ... but

May (and sometimes might) can be used in a discussion rather like although or even if: to say that something is true, but that this makes no difference to the main argument. They are often followed by but.

He may be clever, but he hasn't got much common sense. (= Even if he's clever, he ... OR Although he's clever, he ... )

It may be a comfortable car, but it uses a lot of petrol.

She might have had a lovely voice when she was younger, but ...

Note that in this structure, may and might can be used to talk about things that are definitely true, not just possible.

You may be my boss, but that doesn't mean you're better than me.

343 may and might (6): may/might as well

This structure is used informally to suggest that one should do something because there is nothing better, nothing more interesting or nothing more useful to do. There is little difference between may and might in this case.

There's nobody interesting to talk to. We may as well go home.

Shall we go and see Fred? ~ OK, might as well.

Note the difference between may/might as well and had better (see 230). Compare:

We may as well have something to eat. (= There is nothing more interesting to do.)

We'd better have something to eat. (= We ought to eat; there is a good reason to eat now.)

Might as well is also used to compare one unpleasant situation with another.

This holiday isn't much fun. We might just as well be back home. (= Things wouldn't be any different if we were at home.)

You never listen - I might as well talk to a brick wall.

344 may and might (7): requests, suggestions and criticisms

Might is often used in affirmative clauses to make requests and suggestions.

You might see if John's free this evening.

You might try asking your uncle for a job.

The structure can be used to criticise. Might have + past participle is used to talk about the past.

You might ask before you borrow my car.

She might have told me she was going to stay out all night.

For the use of could in similar senses, see 124.7.

345 may and might (8): may/might and can/could

May/might are often used in similar ways to can/could. The main differences are as follows. For more details of these uses, see 121-124 and 338-340.

1 permission: can/could more common

Can and could are more common than may and might, which are used mostly in a formal style. Compare:

Can I look at your paper?

Excuse me, may I look at your newspaper for a moment?

There is an old belief that may/might are more 'correct' than can/could in this case, but this does not reflect normal usage.

2 'general' possibility: can/could, not may/might

We normally use can and could to say that things are possible in general: people are able to do them, the situation makes them possible, or there is nothing to stop them (see 122). May and might are not used in this way.

She's lived in France; that's why she can speak French. (NOT ... that's why she may speak French.)

These roses can grow anywhere. (NOT These roses may grow anywhere.)

Can gases freeze? (NOT May gases freeze?)

In those days, everybody could find a job. (NOT ... everybody might find a job.)

3 chances: may/might/could, not can

To talk about the chance (possibility) that something will happen, or is happening, we use may, might or could, but not can.

Where's Sarah? ~She may be with Joe. (NOT She can be ... )

We may go to the Alps next summer. (NOT We can go ... next summer.)

Might and could suggest a less strong possibility.

It might/could rain this evening, but I think it probably won't.

May is not used in direct questions with this meaning.

Do you think you'll go to the Alps? (NOT May you go ... ?)

4 negative sentences: may/might not and can/could not

May/might not means 'perhaps ... not ... '

Can/could not can mean 'it is certain that ... not ...' (see 359.2).

Compare:

- It may/might not rain tomorrow. (= Perhaps it will not rain.)

It can't/couldn't possibly rain tomorrow. (= It will certainly not rain.)

- It may not be true. (= Perhaps it is not true.)

It can't be true. (= It is certainly not true.)

- He may/might not have understood. (= Perhaps he did not understand.)

He can't/couldn't have understood. (= He certainly did not understand.)

346 maybe and perhaps

These two words mean the same. They are both common. In British English, perhaps is used more often than maybe in a formal style.

Maybe/Perhaps it'll stop raining soon.

Julius Caesar is perhaps the greatest of Shakespeare's early plays.

Perhaps is often pronounced 'praps' by British people.

347 meals

There are regional and social differences in the names for meals.

1 British usage

a) midday: dinner or lunch

The midday meal is often called dinner, especially if it is the main meal of the day. People who are 'higher' in the social scale usually call it lunch.

b) afternoon: tea

Some people have a light meal of tea and biscuits or cakes, called tea, at four or five o'clock in the afternoon.

c) early evening: (high) tea or supper

Many people have a cooked meal around five or six o'clock. This is often called tea or high tea; some people call it supper.

d) later evening: supper or dinner

A meal later in the evening is often called supper (and some people use the same word for a bedtime snack). Some people use dinner for the evening meal if it is the main meal of the day. A more formal evening meal with guests, or in a restaurant, is usually called dinner.

2 American usage

Americans generally use lunch for the midday meal and dinner or supper for the evening meal. However in rural areas it is still common for the main meal of the day to be eaten at midday and called 'dinner', with the evening meal being called 'supper'. Celebration meals at Christmas and Thanksgiving are called Christmas/Thanksgiving dinner, even if they are eaten at midday.

348 mean

1 questions

Note the structure of questions with mean.

Excuse me. What does 'hermetic' mean? (NOT What means 'hermetic'?)

Note also the preposition in What do you mean by 'hermetic'? (= In what sense are you using the word?)

2 mean and think, meaning and opinion

Mean and meaning are 'false friends' for speakers of some European languages. They are not usually used for 'think' or 'opinion'.

I think that Labour will win the next election. (NOT I mean that Labour will win ... )

What's your opinion? (NOT What's your meaning?)

3 structures

Mean (= intend, plan) can be followed by (object) + infinitive.

Sorry - I didn't mean to interrupt you.

Did you mean John to post those letters?

Mean (= involve, have as a result) can be followed by a noun or ... ing.

The Fantasians have invaded Utopia. This means war!

If you decide to try the exam, it will mean studying hard.

4 I mean

I mean is used informally as a 'discourse marker' (see 157) to introduce explanations or additional details.

He's funny - I mean, he's really strange.

It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat round and talked politics.

Would you like to come out tonight? I mean, only if you want to, of course.

When I mean introduces a comment it can be close to I think or I feel, but it is not followed by that.

A hundred pounds for a thirty hour week. I mean, it's not right, is it? (BUT NOT I mean that it's not right ... )

In informal speech, I mean often acts as a connector or 'filler', with little real meaning.

Let's go and see Phil on Saturday. I mean, we could make an early start ...

I mean is also used to introduce corrections.

She lives in Southport - I mean Southampton.

5 What do you mean ... ?

What do you mean ... ? can express anger or protest.

What do you mean, I can't sing?

What do you mean by waking me up at this time of night?

6 no progressive form

Mean is not normally used in progressive forms when it refers to meanings.

What does that strange smile mean? (NOT What is that strange smile meaning?)

But perfect progressive forms can be used to refer to intentions.

I've been meaning to phone you for weeks.

349 means

1 singular and plural ending in -s

Both the singular and the plural of means end in -s

In the 19th century a new means of communication was developed - the railway. (NOT ... a new mean of communication ... )

There are several means of transport on the island.

For other words with singular forms ending in -s, see 524.3.

2 by all/any/no means

By all means is not the same as by all possible means. It is used to give permission or to encourage somebody to do something, and means 'of course' or 'it is all right to .. .' Compare:

Can I borrow your sweater? ~ By all means.

By all means get a new coat, but don't spend more than £80.

We must help her by all possible means. (NOT We must help her by all means.)

By no means (or not by any means) is not the opposite of by all means. It is

similar to definitely not, or not by a long way.

Is that all you've got to say? ~ By no means.

Galileo was by no means the first person to use a telescope.

350 measurements: 'marked' and 'unmarked' forms

Many adjectives that are used in measurements come in pairs (e.g. tall/short, old/young, heavy/light, fast/slow). The word that is used for the 'top' end of the measurement scale can usually be used in another sense, to talk about the quality in general. For instance, one can ask how long something is even if it is relatively short. Grammarians call these uses 'unmarked'. Compare:

- She's very tall and he's very short. (marked)

Exactly how tall are they both? (unmarked) (NOT Exactly how short are they both?)

- Will you still love me when I'm old? (marked)

He's only twenty-three years old. (unmarked) (NOT ... twenty three years young. )

- Lead is one of the heaviest metals. (marked)

Scales are used to measure how heavy things are. (unmarked) (NOT ... how light things are.)

Some nouns are used in similar 'unmarked' ways. Compare:

- Age brings wisdom but I'd rather have youth and stupidity. (marked)

What is her exact age? (unmarked) (NOT What is her exact youth?)

- The worst thing about the film was its length. (marked)

What's the length of a football field? (unmarked) (NOT What's the shortness ... ?)

351 mind: do you mind etc

1 meaning and use

Mind can mean 'dislike', 'be annoyed by', 'object to'. We use mind mostly in

questions and negative clauses.

Do you mind the smell of tobacco? ~ Not at all.

Do you mind if we leave a bit earlier today?

I don't mind if you use my car.

After mind, we can use an -ing form, or object + -ing form.

Do you mind waiting a few minutes? (Nor ... to wait ... )

I don't mind you coming in late if you don't wake me up.

2 Would you mind ... ?

We can use Would you mind ... ? to ask people to do things, or to ask for

permission.

Would you mind opening the window? (= Please open ... )

Would you mind if I opened the window?

3 Do/Would you mind my .. .ing?

In a formal style, we sometimes use my, your etc with an -ing form after mind (see 295.3,4).

Do you mind my smoking? (More common: ... me smoking? OR ... if I smoke?)

4 answers

After Would/Do you mind ... ?, we use No or Not at all (more formal) to give permission (but we often add more words to make the meaning quite clear).

Do you mind if I look at your paper? ~ No, please do / that's OK / sure.

5 tenses

In subordinate clauses after mind, a present tense is usually used if we want to express a future meaning (see 580).

I don't mind what you do after you leave school. (NOT I don't mind what you will do ... )

352 miss

1 'fail to contact', 'be late for'

Miss often expresses the idea of failing to contact somebody/something, or

being late for somebody/something.

How could he miss an easy goal like that?

The station's about five minutes' walk, straight ahead. You can't miss it.

If you don't hurry we'll miss the train. (NOT ... lose the train.)

You've just missed her - she went home five minutes ago.

An -ing form can be used after miss.

I got in too late and missed seeing the news on TV.

2 'be sorry to be without'

We can use miss to say that we are sorry because we are no longer with somebody, or no longer have something.

Will you miss me when I'm away?

He's not happy in the country - he misses city life.

Note that regret is not used in the same way. Compare:

I miss working with you. (= I'm sorry I'm no longer with you.)

I regret working with you. (= I'm sorry I was with you.)

3 'notice the absence of'

Another meaning of miss is 'notice that somebody/something is not there'.

The child ran away in the morning, but nobody missed her for hours.

4 miss not used

Miss is not used simply to say that somebody has not got something.

In some of the villages they haven't got electricity. (NOT ... they miss electricity.)

In a formal style, the verb or noun lack can be used to express this idea.

. . . they lack electricity.

I am sorry that lack of time prevents me from giving more details.

5 missing

Missing is often used as an adjective, meaning 'lost'.

When did you realise that the money was missing?

The missing children were found at their aunt's house.

We can use missing after a noun. This often happens in clauses beginning with there is.

There's a page missing from this book.

In an informal style, a structure with have ... missing is also possible.

We've got some plates missing - do you think Alan's borrowed them?

He had several teeth missing.

353 modal auxiliary verbs: introduction

1 What are modal auxiliary verbs?

The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall (mainly British English), should, must and ought are called 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used before the infinitives of other verbs, and add certain kinds of meaning connected with certainty, or with obligation and freedom to act (see next section).

2 grammar

a) Modal verbs have no -s in the third person singular.

She may know his address. (NOT She mays ... )

b) Questions, negatives, tags and short answers are made without do.

Can you swim? (NOT Do you can swim) ~ Yes, I can

He shouldn't be doing that, should he? (NOT He doesn't should ... )

c) After modal auxiliary verbs, we use the infinitive without to of other verbs. Ought is an exception - see 403.

I must water the flowers. (NOT I must to water ... )

Progressive, perfect and passive infinitives are also possible (see 280).

I may not be working tomorrow.

She was so angry she could have killed him.

The kitchen ought to be painted one of these days.

d) Modal verbs do not have infinitives or participles (to may, maying, mayed do not exist), and they do not normally have past forms (though would, could, should and might can sometimes be used as past tenses of will, can, shall and may). Other expressions are used when necessary.

I'd like to be able to skate. (NOT ... to can skate.)

People really had to work hard in those days. (NOT People really musted work ... )

e) However, certain past ideas can be expressed by a modal verb followed by a perfect infinitive (have + past participle).

You should have told me you were coming.

I think I may have annoyed Aunt Mary.

For details of these uses, see the entries on particular modal verbs.

f) Modal verbs have contracted negative forms (can't, won't etc) which are used in an informal style. (Shan't and mayn't are only used in British English; mayn't is very rare.) Will and would also have contracted affirmative forms ('ll, 'd). For details, see 143. Some modals have both 'strong' and 'weak' pronunciations. For details, see 616.

g) There is quite often used as a preparatory subject with modal verbs, especially when these are followed by be (see 586).

There may be rain later today.

3 meanings

We do not normally use modal verbs to say that situations definitely exist or that particular events have definitely happened. We use them, for example, to talk about things which we expect, which are or are not possible, which we think are necessary, which we want to happen, which we are not sure about, which tend to happen, or which have not happened.

He may arrive any time.

She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo - nobody knows.

I can't swim.

I think you ought to see a lawyer.

We really must tidy up the garden.

What would you do if you had a free year?

Edinburgh can be very cold in winter.

I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier.

You might have told me Prances was ill.

For further general information about the meanings of modal auxiliary verbs, see next section.

For more detailed information, see the sections for each verb.

4 need and used to

Need (see 366) and used to (see 604) are sometimes used in similar ways to modal verbs.

You needn't wait for me.

She used not to be so bad-tempered.

354 modal auxiliary verbs: meanings

1 two kinds of meaning

Most of the meanings of modal verbs can be divided into two groups. One is to do with degrees of certainty: modal verbs can be used to say for instance that a situation is certain, probable, possible or impossible. The other is to do with obligation, freedom to act and similar ideas: modal verbs can be used to say that somebody is obliged to do something, that he/she is able to do something, that there is nothing to stop something happening, that it would be better if something happened (or did not), or that something is permitted or forbidden.

2 degrees of certainty

Modal verbs can express various degrees of certainty about facts, situations or events.

a) complete certainty (positive or negative): shall, will, must, can't

I shall be away tomorrow.   There's the phone. That'll be Tony.

I shan't be late on Tuesday.   Things will be all right.

It won't rain this evening.   You must be tired.

That can't be John - he's in Dublin.

b) probability (deduction; saying that something is logical or normal): should, ought to

She should / ought to be here soon.

It shouldn't / oughtn't to be difficult to get there.

c) possibility (talking about the chances that something is true or will happen): may

The water may not be warm enough to swim.

We may be buying a new house.

d) weak possibility: might, could

I might see you again - who knows?

Things might not be as bad as they seem.

We could all be millionaires one day.

3 obligation and freedom to act

Modal verbs can express various aspects of obligation and freedom. (These uses of modal verbs are very important in the polite expression of requests, suggestions, invitations and instructions.)

a) strong obligation: must, will, need

Students must register in the first week of term.

All sales staff will arrive for work by 8.40 a.m.

Need I get a visa for Hungary?

b) prohibition: must not, may not, cannot

Students must not use the staff car park.

Books may not be taken out of the library.

You can't come in here.

c) weak obligation; recommendation: should, ought to, might, shall (in questions)

You should try to work harder.   You might see what John thinks.

She really ought to wash her hair.   What shall we do?

d) willingness, volunteering, resolving, insisting and offering: will, shall (in questions)

If you will come this way ...

I'll pay for the drinks.   She will keep interrupting people.

I'll definitely work harder next term.   Shall I give you a hand?

e) permission: can, could, may, might

You can use the car if you like.

Could I talk to you for a minute?

May we use the phone?

Do you think I might take a break now?

f) absence of obligation: needn't

You needn't work this Saturday.

g) ability: can, could

She can speak six languages.

Anybody who wants to can join the club.

These roses can grow anywhere.

When I was a baby I could put my foot in my mouth.

You could get to my old school by bus, but not by train.

4 speaker's and hearer's point of view

Obligation, permission etc are usually seen from the speaker's point of view in statements and the hearer's in questions. Compare:

- You must go and see Ann. (I think it is necessary.)

Must you go and see Ann? (Do you think it is necessary?)

- You can borrow my car. (I give permission.)

Can I borrow your car? (Will you give permission?)

5 forms in indirect speech, after if etc

Instead of can, will, shall and may, we use could, would, should and might to express the same meanings in past indirect speech, (see 275), in some sentences after if (see 258), and in 'future in the past' sentences (see 221).

I knew it couldn't be John.

I told you you wouldn't be ready in time.

If you stopped criticising, I might get some work done.

I should be grateful if you would let me know your decision as soon as possible.

They knelt in front of the child who would one day rule all England.

6 other meanings

Besides the meanings discussed in paragraphs 2 and 3, will and would are used to talk about habitual behaviour or activity (see 629, 633).

Most evenings he'll just sit in front of the TV and go to sleep.

When we were kids, my mum would take us out on bikes all round the countryside.

Used to + infinitive (see 604) is similar to a modal verb structure in some ways. It is used to talk about habitual behaviour or activity and (unlike would) habitual states.

I used to play a lot of tennis when I was younger.

The grass used to look greener when I was a child. (NOT The grass would look greener when I was a child.)

7 subject-independence

An interesting, rather complicated point about modal verbs is that their meaning usually 'spreads over' a whole clause. This means that one can change a modal structure from active to passive, for example, without affecting the meaning very much. Compare:

- A child could understand his theory.

His theory could be understood by a child.

- You mustn't put adverbs between the verb and the object.

Adverbs mustn't be put between the verb and the object.

- Dogs may chase cats.

Cats may get chased by dogs.

With most other verbs that are followed by infinitives, their meaning is attached to the subject, so that a change from active to passive changes the sense of the sentence completely. Compare:

- Dogs like to chase cats.

Cats like to be chased by dogs. (different and - of course - untrue)

- Pete wants to phone Ann.

Ann wants to be phoned by Pete. (not the same meaning)

For more details of the use of the various modal verbs, see the entries for each verb.

355 more

1 more + noun

We can use more before a noun phrase as a determiner (see 154). We do not generally use of when there is no other determiner (e.g. article or possessive).

We need more time. (NOT ... more of time.)

More university students are having to borrow money these days.

However, more of is used directly before personal and geographical names.

It would be nice to see more of Ray and Barbara.

Five hundred years ago, much more of Britain was covered with trees.

2 more of + determiner/pronoun

Before determiners (e.g. a, the, my, this) and pronouns, we use more of.

Three more of the missing climbers have been found.

Could I have some more of that smoked fish?

I don't think any more of them want to come.

3 more without a noun

We can drop a noun after more if the meaning is clear.

I'd like some more, please.

4 one more etc

Note the structure one more, two more etc + noun phrase.

There's just one more river to cross.

5 more as an adverb

More can also be used as an adverb.

I couldn't agree more.

More and more is used to talk about continual increase.

I hate this job more and more as the years go by.

6 comparative structures

More is used to make the comparative forms of longer adjectives and most adverbs (see 137-138).

As you get older you get more tolerant.   Please drive more slowly.

For no more, not any more/longer, see 379.

For far more, much more, many more etc, see 140.

356 most

1 most (= 'the majority of') without of

Most can mean 'the majority of'. We do not use the before most with this

meaning.

Most children like ice cream. (NOT The most children ... )

We do not generally use of after most when there is no other determiner (e.g. article or possessive).

Most cheese is made from cow's milk. (NOT Most of cheese ... )

Most Swiss people understand French. (NOT Most of Swiss people ... )

However, most of is used directly before personal and geographical names.

I've read most of Shakespeare.

The Romans conquered most of England.

2 most of + determiner/pronoun

Before determiners (e.g. a, the, my, this) and pronouns, we use most of.

Most of the people here know each other.

Most of my friends live abroad. (NOT Most my friends ... )

Most of us thought he was wrong.

He's eaten two pizzas and most of a cold chicken.

3 most without a noun

We can drop a noun after most if the meaning is clear.

Some people had difficulty with the lecture, but most understood.

4 the most (= 'more than any other/others') with nouns

In comparisons (when most means 'more than any other/others') it is normally used with the before nouns.

Susan found the most blackberries.

The is sometimes dropped in an informal style.

Who earns (the) most money in your family?

5 (the) most as an adverb

(The) most can also be used as an adverb. The is often dropped in an informal style.

They all talk a lot, but your little girl talks (the) most.

The truth hurts most.

6 superlative adjectives and adverbs

(The) most is used to make the superlative forms of longer adjectives and most adverbs (see 137-138).

I wasn't as clever as the others, but I was the most beautiful.

I work most efficiently in the early morning.

7 most meaning 'very'

Most can be used before adjectives to mean 'very' in evaluating expressions, especially in a formal style.

That is most kind of you.   Thank you for a most interesting afternoon.

The experience was most distressing.

8 mostly

Mostly means 'in most (but not all) cases'. Compare:

Your little girl talks the most. (NOT ... talks mostly.)

She mostly talks about her friends.

357 much and many

1 the difference

Much is used with singular (uncountable) nouns; many is used with plurals.

I haven't got much time.   I don't know many of your friends.

2 much/many + noun: without of

We do not generally use of after much/many when there is no other determiner (e.g. article or possessive).

She didn't eat much breakfast. (NOT ... much of breakfast.)

There aren't many large glasses left. (NOT ... many of large glasses left.)

However, much of is used directly before personal and geographical names.

I've seen too much of Howard recently.   Not much of Denmark is hilly.

3 much/many of + determiner + noun

Before determiners (e.g. a, the, my, this) and pronouns, we use much of and many of.

You can't see much of a country in a week.

How much of the house do you want to paint this year?

I won't pass the exam: I've missed too many of my lessons.

How many of you are there?

4 much/many without a noun

We can drop a noun after much or many, if the meaning is clear.

You haven't eaten much.

Did you find any mushrooms? ~ Not many.

Note that much and many are only used like this when a noun has been dropped.

There wasn't much (food). BUT NOT The food wasn't much. (Because you couldn't say The food wasn't much food.)

Many is not usually used alone to mean 'many people'.

Many people think it's time for a change. (More natural than Many think ... )

5 not used in affirmative clauses

In an informal style, we use much and many mostly in questions and negative clauses. In most affirmative clauses they are unusual (especially much); other words and expressions are used instead.

How much money have you got? ~ I've got plenty. (NOT I've got much.)

He's got lots of men friends, but he doesn't know many women. (More natural than He's got many men friends ... )

Did you buy any clothes? .~Yes, lots. (NOT Yes, many)

In a formal style, much and many are more common in affirmative clauses.

Much has been written about unemployment. In the opinion of many economists, ...

Far and long (= a long time) are also used mostly in questions and negative clauses. See 200 and 330.

6 after so, as, and too

So much/many, as much/many and too much/many are quite natural in affirmative clauses.

There was so much traffic that it took me an hour to get home.

I play as much tennis as I can.   You make too many mistakes.

7 much as adverb

We can use much as an adverb in questions and negative clauses.

Do you work much at weekends?   I don't travel much these days.

We can also use much before comparative adjectives and adverbs, in affirmative clauses as well as questions and negatives.

She's much older than her brother.   I don't drive much faster than you.

Much can be used before some verbs expressing enjoyment, preference and similar ideas, in affirmative clauses as well as questions and negatives, especially in a formal style.

I much appreciate your help.

We much prefer the country to the town.

I didn't much enjoy the concert.

Very much can be used in affirmative clauses as an adverb, but not usually before a noun. Compare:

I very much like your new hairstyle. (adverb)

Thank you very much. (adverb)

There's a whole lot of water coming under the door. (before noun) (NOT There's very much water coming ... )

For much and very with past participles (e.g. much/very amused), see 410.4.

358 must (1): introduction

1 grammar

Must is a modal auxiliary verb (see 353-354).

a) There is no -s in the third person singular.

He must start coming on time. (NOT He musts ... )

b) Questions and negatives are made without do.

Must you go? (NOT Do you must go?)

You mustn't worry. (NOT You don't must worry)

c) After must, we use the infinitive without to of other verbs.

I must write to my mother. (NOT I must to write ... )

d) Must has no infinitive or participles (to must, musting, musted do not exist), and it has no past tense. When necessary, we express similar meanings with other words, for example forms of have to (see 239).

It's annoying to have to get up early on Sundays. (NOT to must get up ... )

He'll have to start coming on time. (NOT He'll must ... )

She's always had to work hard. (NOT She's always musted ... )

We had to cut short our holiday because my mother was ill. (NOT We musted ... )

e) Some ideas about the past can be expressed by must have + past participle (see 359.4).

I can't find my keys. I must have left them at home.

Must can also be used with a past sense in indirect speech.

Everybody told me I must stop worrying.

f) There is a contracted negative mustn't (/'mʌsnt/). Must has two pronunciations: a 'strong' pronunciation /mʌst/ and a 'weak' pronunciation /m(ə)st)/. The weak pronunciation is used in most cases (see 616).

2 meanings

Must is used mostly to express the deduction or conclusion that something is certain (see 359), and (less often in American English) to talk about necessity and obligation (see 360).

You must be Anna's sister - you look just like her.

You really must get your hair cut.

For differences between must and have (got) to, see 361.

For the difference between must and should, see 520.

359 must (2): deduction (concluding that something is certain)

1 statements: Mary must have a problem

Must can be used to express the deduction or conclusion that something is certain or highly probable: it is normal or logical, there are excellent reasons for believing it, or it is the only possible explanation for what is happening.

If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger than C.

I'm in love. ~ You must be very happy.

Mary must have a problem - she keeps crying.

There's the doorbell. It must be Roger.

2 negatives: It can't be the postman

Must is not often used to express certainty in negative clauses. We normally use cannot/can't to say that something is certainly not the case, because it is logically or practically impossible, or extremely improbable.

If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then C can't be bigger than A.

It can't be the postman at the door. It's only seven o'clock. (NOT It mustn't be the postman ... )

She's not answering the phone. She can't be at home.

However, mustn't is used in question tags (see 487-488) after must.

It must be nice to be a cat, mustn't it? (NOT ... can't it?)

And must not is occasionally used, especially in American English, to say that there is evidence that something is not the case (see 361.4)

3 need not / does not have to

Need not / needn't is used (especially in British English) to say that something is not necessarily so; does not have to can also be used. Must not is not used in this sense.

Look at those tracks. That must be a dog. ~ It needn't be - it could be a fox. (OR ... It doesn't have to be ... ) (NOT ... It mustn't be ... )

4 That must have been nice

We can use must have + past participle to express certainty about the past.

We went to Rome last month. ~ That must have been nice.

A woman phoned while you were out. ~ It must have been Kate.

Can is used in questions and negatives.

Where can John have put the matches? He can't have thrown them away.

5 indirect speech

Must can be used after a past reporting verb as if it were a past tense.

I felt there must be something wrong.

6 must and should

Should can be used as a weaker form of must (see 520). Compare:

Ann must be at home by now. (= I think she's certainly at home.)

Ann should be at home by now. (= I think she's very probably at home.)

360 must (3): necessity and obligation

The following explanations apply particularly to British English. Americans often use have (got) to where British people use must (see 361). However, this use of have (got) to is becoming more common in British English under American influence.

1 statements: I really must stop smoking

In affirmative statements, we can use must to say what is necessary, and to give strong advice and orders to ourselves or other people.

Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow properly.

British industry must improve its productivity.

I really must stop smoking.

You must be here before eight o'clock tomorrow.

Must is common in emphatic invitations.

You really must come and see us soon.

2 questions: Must I ... ?

In questions, we use must to ask about what the hearer thinks is necessary.

Must I clean all the rooms?

Why must you always leave the door open?

3 negatives: You mustn't/can't ...

We use must not / mustn't to say that it is wrong to do things, or to tell people not to do things. Can't is also possible.

The government mustn't/can't expect people to work for no money.

You mustn't/can't open this parcel until Christmas Day.

4 mustn't and needn't / don't have to

Mustn't is not used to say that things are unnecessary. This idea is expressed by needn't, don't need to (see 366) or don't have to.

You needn't work tomorrow if you don't want to. OR You don't have to work ... (NOT You mustn't ... if you don't want to.)

You don't need to get a visa to go to Scotland. OR You don't have to get a visa ... (NOT You mustn't get a visa to go to Scotland.)

5 past necessity and obligation

Must is not normally used to talk about past obligation (except in indirect speech - see below). This is because must is used mainly to influence people's behaviour - for example through orders or advice - and one cannot do this in the past. Had to is used to talk about obligation that existed in the past.

I had to cycle three miles to school when I was a child.

My parents had to work very hard to build up their business.

6 indirect speech

Must can be used after a past reporting verb as if it were a past tense.

The doctor said that I must stop smoking.

Obligation can also be reported with had to and would have to.

The doctor said that I had to / would have to stop smoking.

7 must and should

Should can be used as a weaker form of must (see 520). Compare:

That carpet must be cleaned. (= It is absolutely necessary.)

That carpet should be cleaned. (= It would be a good idea.)

361 must (4): advanced points

1 must and have to

In statements about obligation with must the obligation most often comes from the speaker (and in questions, from the hearer). To talk about an obligation that comes from 'outside' (for instance a regulation, or an order from somebody else), we usually prefer have to. Compare:

- I must do some more work; I want to pass my exam.

In my job I have to work from nine to five. (More natural than ... I must work from nine to five.)

- We must go to New York soon and see your mother.

My wife's an interpreter: she often has to go to New York. (More natural than ... she must often go to New York.)

- I must stop smoking. (I want to.)

I've got to stop smoking. (Doctor's orders.)

- This is a terrible party. We really must go home.

This is a lovely party, but we've got to go home because of the baby-sitter.

- I've got bad toothache. I must make an appointment with the dentist.

I can't come to work tomorrow morning because I've got to see the dentist.

- You really must go to church next Sunday - you haven't been for ages. (I am telling you to.)

Catholics have to go to church on Sundays. (Their religion tells them to.)

- Must you wear dirty old jeans all the time? (Is it personally important for you?)

Do you have to wear a tie at work? (Is there a regulation?)

Have to can also be used to talk about obligation coming from the speaker or hearer, in the same way as must. This is normal in American English (which uses must less often in this sense), and is becoming very common in British English.

I really have to stop smoking. (OR I really must ... )

Do I have to clean all the rooms? (OR Must I ... ?)

For have to and have got to, see 239.

2 future obligation: will have to, have (got) to and must

Will have to is used to talk about future obligation (will must is impossible - see 358); but have (got) to is preferred when arrangements for the future have already been made. Compare:

When you leave school you'll have to find a job.

I've got to go for a job interview tomorrow.

Going to have to is also possible.

We're going to have to repair that window.

Must can be used to give orders or instructions for the future.

You can borrow my car, but you must bring it back before ten.

Will have to can be used to 'distance' the instructions (see 436), making them sound less like direct orders from the speaker.

You can borrow my car, but you'll have to bring it back before ten.

Will need to can be used in the same way (see 366.4).

3 talking about the past: had to ... and must have ...

Had to is used to talk about past obligation. Must have + past participle is used to express certainty about the past (see 359.4). Compare:

Edna isn't in her office. She had to go home. (= It was necessary for her to go home.)

Edna isn't in her office. She must have gone home. (= It seems certain that she has gone home.)

4 a British-American difference: can't and must not

In American English, must not is often used when something is not logically impossible, but when there is strong evidence for believing that it is not the case. Compare:

- He only left the office five minutes ago. He can't be home yet. (It's logically impossible that he's home.)

She's not answering the doorbell. She must not be at home. (It's not logically impossible that she's home, but it seems pretty certain that she isn't.)

- The restaurant can't be open - the door's locked.

That restaurant must not be any good - it's always empty.

In British English, can't is normal for both meanings (though some people use must not for the 'seems pretty certain' meaning). Compare:

She walked past without saying 'Hello'. She must not have seen you. (AmE; some British speakers.)

She walked past without saying 'Hello'. She can't have seen you. (most British speakers.)

Note that the contracted form mustn't is rare in AmE.

362 names: Florence, Homer etc

1 cities

The names of cities are often different in different languages - for example the capital of Denmark, Kebenhaun, is called Kopenhagen in German, Copenhague in French, and Copenhagen in Italian and English. Some examples of English names for cities:

The Hague, Brussels, Antwerp, Hanover, Cologne, Munich, Vienna, Lyons (now more usually Lyon), Marseilles (now more usually Marseille), Milan, Florence, Venice, Rome, Naples, Padua, Genoa, Leghorn (now more usually Liuorno), Turin, Geneva, Seville, Lisbon, Athens, Thessalonica, Prague, Warsaw, Belgrade, Moscow, St Petersburg, Bucharest, Beirut, Damascus, Jerusalem, Peking (now usually Beijing), Bombay (now usually Mumbai), Calcutta (now usually Kolkatai).

2 classical names

The same is true of many classical Greek and Roman names. Some examples:

Homer, Aeschylus, Livy, Horace, Ouid, Virgil, Aesop, Aristotle, Euclid, Sophocles, Mercury, Jupiter, Helen, Troy, Odvsseus

3 artists

The Italian artists Raffaello Sanzio and Tiziano are called Raphael and Titian in English.

4 countries

The names of countries, of course, also differ from one language to another (e.g. Deutschland, Nemecko, Allemagne, Germany). English versions are not listed here, as they are well known and can easily be found in any dictionary if needed.

363 names and titles: Peter; Mr Lewis

Names and titles are used both when talking about people and when talking to them. There are some differences.

1 talking about people

When we talk about people we can name them in four ways.

a) first name

We use first names mostly informally, for relatives, friends and children.

Where's Peter? He said he'd be here at three.

How's Maud getting on at school?

b) first name + surname

This is neutral - neither particularly formal nor particularly informal.

Isn't that Peter Connolly the actor?

We're going on holiday with Mary and Daniel Sinclair.

c) title (Mr, Mrs etc) + surname

This is more formal. We talk like this about people we do not know, or when we want to show respect or be polite.

Can I speak to Mr Lewis, please?

We've got a new teacher called Mrs Campbell.

Ask Miss Andrews to come in, please.

There's a Ms Sanders on the phone.

Note that it is less usual to talk about people by using title + first name + surname (e.g. Mr John Parker).

d) surname only

We often use just the surname to talk about men (and occasionally women) in public life - politicians, sports personalities, writers and so on.

Do you think Roberts would make a good President?

The 5,000 metres was won by Jones.

I don't think Eliot is a very good dramatist.

Thatcher was the first British woman Prime Minister.

Surnames alone are sometimes used for employees (especially male employees), and by members of groups (especially all-male groups like soldiers, schoolboys, team members) when they refer to each other.

Tell Patterson to come and see me at once.

Let's put Billows in goal and move Carter up.

2 talking to people

When we talk to people we generally name them in one of two ways.

a) first name

This is informal, used for example to relatives, friends and children.

Hello, Pamela. How are you?

b) title + surname

This is more formal or respectful.

Good morning, Miss Williamson.

Note that we do not usually use both the first name and the surname of a person that we are talking to. It would be unusual to say 'Hello, Peter Matthews', for example.

Members of all-male groups sometimes address each other by their surnames alone (e.g. 'Hello, Smith'), but this is unusual in modern English. Mr, Mrs and Ms are not generally used alone.

Excuse me. Can you tell me the time? (NOT Excuse me, Mr OR Excuse me, Mrs.)

Doctor can be used alone to talk to medical doctors whom one is consulting, but not usually in other cases.

Doctor, I've got this pain in my elbow.

Sir and madam are used in Britain mostly by people in service occupations (e.g. shop assistants). Some employees call their male employers sir, and some schoolchildren call their teachers sir or miss. Dear Sir and Dear Madam are common ways of beginning letters to strangers (see 146) - note the capital letters. In other situations sir and madam are unusual in British English.

Excuse me. Can you tell me the time? (NOT Excuse me, sir ... )

In American English, sir and ma'am are less formal than in British English, and are quite often used (especially in the South and West) when addressing people.

3 notes on titles

Note the pronunciations of the titles Mr, Mrs and Ms (used before names):

Mr /'mɪstə(r)/ Mrs /'mɪsɪz/ Ms /mɪz/ or /məz/

Mr (= Mister) is not normally written in full, and the other two cannot be. Like Mr, Ms does not show whether somebody is married or not. It is often used, especially in writing, to talk about or address women when one does not know (or has no reason to say) whether they are married. Many women also choose to use Ms before their own names in preference to Mrs or Miss. Ms is a relatively new title: it has been in common use in Britain since the 1970s, and a little longer in the United States.

Dr (= Doctor) is used as a title for medical and other doctors (but see paragraph 2 for its use).

Professor does not mean 'teacher'; it is used only for heads of university departments and some other very senior university teachers.

Note that we do not normally combine two titles such as Prof Dr or Mrs Dr.

For ways of addressing people in letters, see 146.

For ways of introducing people, see 545.l.

For full stops with abbreviated titles and initials, see 2.

364 nationalities, countries and regions

1 introduction

In order to refer to a nation or region and its affairs it is usually necessary to know four words:

• the name of the country or region

Denmark, Japan, France, Catalonia

• the adjective

Danish, Japanese, French, Catalan

• the singular noun used for a person from the country

a Dane, a Japanese, a Frenchman/woman, a Catalan

• the plural expression the ... used for the population as a whole

the Danes, the Japanese, the French, the Catalans

Usually the singular noun is the same as the adjective (e.g. Greek, Mexican).

The plural expression is usually the same as the adjective + -s (e.g. the Greeks, the Mexicans); words ending in -ese, and Swiss, have no -s (e.g. the Japanese; the Swiss). See paragraph 2 below for more examples.

However, there are a number of exceptions. Some of these are listed in paragraph 3.

All words of this kind (including adjectives) begin with capital letters.

American literature (NOT american literature)

The name of a national language is often the same as the national adjective.

Danish is difficult to pronounce. Do you speak Japanese?

2 Examples

Country/region
Adjective
Person
Population

America
(The United States)
American
an American
The Americans

Belgium
Belgian
a Belgian
the Belgians

Brazil
Brazilian
a Brazilian
the Brazilians

Europe
European
a European
the Europeans

Italy
Italian
an Italian
the Italians

Kenya
Kenyan
a Kenyan
the Kenyans

Morocco
Moroccan
a Moroccan
the Moroccans

Norway
Norwegian
a Norwegian
the Norwegians

Palestine
Palestinian
a Palestinian
the Palestinians

Russia
Russian
a Russian
the Russians

Tyrol
Tyrolean
a Tyrolean
the Tyroleans

Greece
Greek
a Greek
the Greeks

Iraq
Iraqi
an Iraqi
the Iraqis

Israel
Israeli
an Israeli
the Israelis

Thailand
Thai
a Thai
the Thais

China
Chinese
a Chinese
the Chinese

Congo
Congolese
a Congolese
the Congolese

Portugal
Portuguese
a Portuguese
the Portuguese

Switzerland
Swiss
a Swiss
the Swiss

3 exceptions

Country/region
Adjective
Person
Population

Britain
British
a British person
(Briton)
the British

England
English
an Englishwoman
/man
the English

France
French
a Frenchwoman
/man
the French

Ireland
Irish
an Irishwoman
/man
the Irish

Spain
Spanish
a Spaniard
the Spanish

The Netherlands
/Holland
Dutch
a Dutchwoman
/man
the Dutch

Wales
Welsh
a Welshwoman
/man
the Welsh

Denmark
Danish
a Dane
the Danes

Finland
Finnish
a Finn
the Finns

Poland
Polish
a Pole
the Poles

Scotland
Scottish, Scotch
a Scot
the Scots

Sweden
Swedish
a Swede
the Swedes

Turkey
Turkish
a Turk
the Turks

Notes

a) Scottish is the usual word for the people and culture of Scotland; Scotch is used for whisky.

b) The word Briton is unusual except in newspaper headlines - for example TWO BRITONS KILLED IN AIR CRASH. Brit is sometimes used informally.

c) English is not the same as British, and is not used for Scottish, Welsh or Irish people (see 114).

d) Although American is the normal English word for United States citizens and affairs, people from other parts of the American continent may object to this use, and some people avoid it for this reason.

e) Arabic is used for the language spoken in Arab countries; in other cases, the normal adjective is Arab. Arabian is used in a few fixed expressions and place names (e.g. Saudi Arabian, the Arabian Sea).

f) Note the pronunciation of words like Irishman/men; Dutchman/men: the singular is the same as the plural (/'aɪrɪʃmən, 'dʌtʃmən/).

365 near (to)

Near can be used as a preposition. Near to is also possible with the same meaning, but is less common.

We live near (to) the station.

I put my bag down near (to) the door.   She was near (to) despair.

Near (to) can be followed by an -ing form.

I came very near (to) hitting him.

For -ing forms after to, see 298.2.

For the difference between nearest and next, see 375.

366 need

1 ordinary verb: Everybody needs to rest

Need most often has ordinary verb forms: the third person singular has -s, and questions and negatives are made with do. Need is usually followed by an infinitive with to.

Everybody needs to rest sometimes.

Do we need to reserve seats on the train?

2 modal auxiliary forms: he needn't; need I?

Need can also have the same present-tense forms as modal auxiliary verbs: the third person singular has no -s, and questions and negatives are made without do. In this case, need is normally followed by an infinitive without to.

She needn't reserve a seat - there'll be plenty of room.

These forms are used mainly in negative sentences (needn't); but they are also possible in questions, after if, and in other 'non-affirmative' structures (see 381).

You needn't fill in a form.   Need I fill in a form?

I wonder if I need fill in a form.

This is the only form you need fill in.

(BUT NOT You need fill in a form.)

These forms are more common in BrE; in AmE have to / don't have to are preferred.

3 needn't, need I?: immediate necessity

These modal forms of need normally refer to immediate necessity. They are often used to ask for or give permission - usually permission not to do something. They are not used to talk about habitual, general necessity. Compare:

It's OK- You needn't / don't need to pay for that phone call.

You don't need to pay for emergency calls in most countries. (NOT You needn't pay ... in most countries.)

4 talking about the future

Present tense forms of need are used when making decisions about the future.

Need I come in tomorrow?

Tell her she doesn't need to work tonight.

Will need to ... can be used to talk about future obligation, and give advice for the future. It can make orders and instructions sound less direct.

We'll need to repair the roof next year.

You'll need to start work soon if you want to pass your exams.

You'll need to fill in this form before you see the Inspector.

For similar uses of have to, see 239.3.

5 need ...ing: The sofa needs cleaning

After need an -ing form can be used with the same meaning as a passive infinitive, especially in BrE.

That sofa needs cleaning again. (= ... needs to be cleaned ... )

A structure with object + ... ing or past participle is also possible in some cases.

You need your head examining. (BrE) (OR ... examined.)

6 need not have ...

If we say that somebody need not have done something, we mean that he or she did it, but that it was unnecessary - a waste of time.

You needn't have woken me up. I don't have to go to work today.

I needn't have cooked so much food. Nobody was hungry.

On the other hand, if we say that somebody did not need to do something, we are simply saying that it was not necessary (whether or not it was done). Compare:

I needn't have watered the flowers. just after I finished it started raining.

It started raining, so I didn't need to water the flowers.

Need never have ... is a more emphatic version of need not have ....

I need never have packed all that suncream - it rained every day.

7 need not and must not

Need not or do not need to is used to say that there is no obligation; must not is used to say that there is an obligation not to do something. Compare:

You needn't tell Jennifer - she already knows.

You mustn't tell Margaret - I don't want her to know.

Need not is also sometimes used to say that something is not necessarily true.

She looks quite ill. I'm sure it's flu. ~ It needn't be - maybe she's just over-tired.

For there is no need to ... , see 587.2

367 negative structures (1): basic rules

1 negative verb forms: auxiliary + not

We make negative verb forms by putting not after an auxiliary verb.

We have not forgotten you.   It was not raining.   She can't swim.

Do is normally used if there is no other auxiliary verb.

I like the salad, but I don't like the soup. (NOT I like not the soup.)

Do is followed by the infinitive without to.

I didn't think. (NOT I didn't to think, I didn't thinking OR I didn't thought.)

Do is not used with another auxiliary verb.

You mustn't worry. (NOT You don't must worry.)

Do is not normally used with be (even when be is not auxiliary).

The supper isn't ready. (NOT The supper doesn't be ready.)

For negative forms of have, dare, need and used, see the entries on these verbs.

For the dialect form ain't, see 143.4.

For negatives without do in older English (e.g. I like him not), see 392.

For negative subjunctives (e.g. It's important that he not be disturbed), see 567.2.

2 imperatives: Don't worry

Negative imperatives are made with do not / don't + infinitive (see 268).

Do not expect quick results. (NOT Expect not ... )

Don't worry - I'll look after you. (NOT Worry not ... )

Do not / don't is also used to make the negative imperative of be.

Don't be rude.

3 infinitives and -ing forms: It's important not to worry

We put not before infinitives and -ing forms. Do is not used.

It's important not to worry. (NOT ... to don't worry.)

The best thing about a holiday is not working.

4 other parts of a clause: not his wife, not before six

We can put not with other parts of a clause, not only a verb.

Ask Jake, not his wife.   Come early, but not before six.

It's working, but not properly.

We do not usually begin a sentence with not + subject. Instead, we use a structure with it.

It was not George that came, but his brother. (NOT Not George came ... )

For the difference between not and no with nouns, see 382.

5 other negative words: never, seldom etc

Other words besides not can make a clause negative. Compare:

He's not at home.   He's never at home.

He's seldom / rarely / hardly ever at home.

We do not normally use the auxiliary do with these other words. Compare:

He doesn't work.

He never works. (NOT He does never work.)

He seldom / rarely / hardly ever works.

However, do can be used for emphasis or contrast.

I never did like her.

6 question tags: You don't ..., do you?

After negative clauses, question tags (see 487-488) are not negative.

You don't work on Sundays, do you?

You seldom work on Saturdays, do you? (NOT You seldom work on Saturdays, don't you?)

She never smiled, did she?

The same thing happens after clauses with little and few (see 329).

There's little point in doing anything about it, is there? (NOT ... isn't there?)

He has few reasons for staying, has he?

7 'non-affirmative' words: any etc

We do not usually use some, somebody etc in negative clauses. Instead, we use the 'non-affirmative' words any, anybody etc. (see 381). Compare:

I've found some mushrooms.   I haven't found any mushrooms.

368 negative structures (2): negative questions

1 structure

Contracted and uncontracted negative questions have different word order.

(Uncontracted negative questions are usually formal.)

auxiliary verb + n't + subject

Doesn't she understand?

Why haven't you booked your holiday yet?

auxiliary verb + subject + not

Does she not understand?

Why have you not booked your holiday yet?

Non-auxiliary have and be go in the same position as auxiliary verbs.

Hasn't she any friends to help her?   Aren't you ready?

Have they not at least a room to stay in?   Is Mrs Alien not at home?

2 two meanings

Negative questions can have two different kinds of meaning. It is usually clear from the situation and context which kind of question is being asked.

a) 'It's true that ... , isn't it?'

A negative question can ask for confirmation of a positive belief. In this case the question expects the answer Yes, and means 'It's true that ... , isn't it?'

Didn't you go and see Helen yesterday? How is she? (= I believe you went and saw Helen yesterday ... )

Expressions of opinion can be made less definite by expressing them as negative questions (so that they ask for agreement).

Wouldn't it be better to switch the lights on?

Negative questions of this kind are common in exclamations (see 195) and rhetorical questions (see 482).

Isn't it a lovely day!

She's growing up to be a lovely person. ~ Yes, isn't she!

Isn't the answer obvious? (= Of course the answer is obvious.)

b) 'Is it true that ... not ... ?'

A negative question can also ask for confirmation of a negative belief. In this case the question expects the answer No, and means 'Is it true that ... not ... ?'

Don't you feel well? (= Am I right in thinking you don't feel well?)

Oh, dear. Can't they come this evening?

This kind of negative question can show that the speaker is surprised that something has not happened or is not happening.

Hasn't the postman come yet?

Didn't the alarm go off? I wonder what's wrong with it.

3 polite requests, invitations, offers, complaints and criticisms

Pressing invitations and offers often begin Won't you ... ? Wouldn't you ... ? or Why don't you ... ?

Won't you come in for a few minutes?

Wouldn't you like something to drink?

Why don't you come and spend the weekend with us?

But in other cases we do not usually use negative questions to ask people to do things. This is done with ordinary questions, or with negative statement + question tag.

Excuse me, can you help me for a moment? (ordinary question, used as a request)

You can't help me for a moment, can you? (negative statement + question tag, common in informal requests) BUT NOT Can't you help me for a moment?

Negative questions may be understood as complaints or criticisms.

Can't you lend me your pen for a minute? (= something like 'Are you too selfish to lend me ... ?')

Don't you ever listen to what I say?

4 yes and no

In a reply to a negative question, Yes suggests an affirmative verb, and No suggests a negative verb. Compare:

- Haven't you written to Mary? .~ Yes. (= I have written to her.)

Haven't you told her about us? ~ No. (= I haven't told her about us.)

- Didn't the postman come this morning? ~ Yes, he did.

Didn't he bring anything for me? ~ No, he didn't.

369 negative structures (3): think, hope, seem etc

1 I don't think ...

When we introduce negative ideas with think, believe, suppose, imagine and words with similar meanings, we usually make the first verb (think etc) negative, not the second.

I don't think you've met my wife. (More natural than I think you haven't met my wife.)

I don't believe she's at home. (More natural than I believe she isn't at home.)

However, surprise is often expressed with I thought + negative.

Would you like a drink? ~ I thought you'd never ask.

Hello! I thought you weren't coming.

2 I hope that ... not ...

This does not happen with hope.

I hope it doesn't rain. (NOT I don't hope it rains.)

3 short answers: I suppose not.

In short answers, most of these verbs can be followed by not (see 539).

Are we going to see Alan again? ~ I believe/suppose/hope not.

Another possible short answer construction is I don't ... so (see 539).

Do you think it'll snow? ~ I don't believe/suppose/think so.

Hope is not used in this structure.

I hope not. (NOT I don't hope so.)

I don't think so is more common than I think not, which is rather formal.

4 verbs followed by infinitives

Many verbs can be followed by infinitives (see 282). In an informal style we often prefer to make the first verb negative rather than the infinitive, although this may not change the meaning at all. This happens, for example, with appear, seem, expect, happen, intend and want.

Sibyl doesn't seem to like you. (Less formal than Sibyl seems not to like you.)

I don't expect to see you before Monday. (More natural than I expect not to see you ... )

Angela and I were at the same university, but we never happened to meet. (Less formal than ... we happened never to meet.)

I don't want to fail this exam. (NOT I want not to fail ... )

After I've finished this contract I never intend to teach again.

370 negative structures (4): double negatives

1 English and other languages

In some languages, a negative word like nobody, nothing or never has to be used with a negative verb. In standard English, nobody, nothing, never etc are themselves enough to give a negative meaning, and not is unnecessary.

I opened the door, but I could see nobody. (NOT I couldn't see nobody.)

Tell them nothing. (NOT Don't tell them nothing.)

Your suggestion will help neither of us. (NOT ... won't help neither ... )

Nothing matters now - everything's finished. (NOT Nothing doesn't matter ... )

I've never understood what she wants. (NOT I haven't never understood ... )

2 nobody and not anybody, etc

Nobody, nothing, never etc are rather emphatic. We often prefer to use not

anybody, not anything, not ever etc. Note that anybody, anything, ever etc are not themselves negative words (see 381) - they have to be used with not to give a negative meaning.

I opened the door, but I couldn't see anybody. (NOT ... but I could see anybody.)

Don't tell them anything.

Your suggestion won't help either of us.

At the beginning of a clause, only nobody, nothing etc are used.

Nothing matters. (NOT Not anything matters.)

Nowhere is safe.

3 double and multiple negatives and their meaning

Two or more negative words can be used in one clause, but then both words normally have their full meaning. Compare:

Say nothing. (= Be silent.)

Don't just say nothing. Tell us what the problem is. (= Don't be silent ... )

Multiple negatives are sometimes used instead of simple positive structures for special stylistic effects. This is rather literary; in spoken English it can seem unnatural or old-fashioned.

Not a day passes when I don't regret not having studied music in my youth. (More natural: Every day I regret not having studied music when I was younger. OR I wish I had studied music when I was younger.)

4 dialects

In many British, American and other dialects, two or more negatives can be used with a single negative meaning.

I ain't seen nobody. (Standard English: I haven't seen anybody.)

I ain't never done nothing to nobody, and I ain't never got nothing from nobody no time. (American song by Bert Williams)

For more information about ain't, see 143.4.

5 two negative ideas: not ... or / not ... nor

When not refers to two or more verbs, nouns, adjectives etc, we usually join them with or.

He doesn't smoke or drink. (NOT He doesn't smoke nor drink.)

She wasn't angry or upset.

It's not on the table or in the cupboard.

However, we can use nor after a pause, to separate and emphasise a second verb, adjective etc.

Our main need is not food, nor money. It is education. (More emphatic than ... food or money.)

She didn't phone that day, nor the next day. (More emphatic than ... or the next day.)

Note that neither cannot be used in this way.

For the use of neither ... nor to join two negative ideas (e.g. He neither smokes nor drinks), see 373.

6 ... I don't think etc

In informal speech, expressions like I don't think or I don't suppose are often added after negative statements. In this case, the extra negative makes no difference to the meaning of the statement.

She hasn't got much chance of passing the exam, I don't think.

We won't be back before midnight, I don't suppose.

7 extra negative in expressions of doubt

In informal standard spoken English, a negative verb (without a negative meaning) is sometimes used after expressions of doubt or uncertainty.

I shouldn't be surprised if they didn't get married soon. (= ... if they got married soon.)

I wonder whether I oughtn't to go and see a doctor - I'm feeling a bit funny. (= ... whether I ought to ... )

371 negative structures (5): ambiguous sentences

In a negative structure, not can refer to different parts of a sentence. Compare:

Arthur didn't write to Sue yesterday - he phoned her.

Arthur didn't write to Sue yesterday - he wrote to Ann.

Arthur didn't write to Sue yesterday - he wrote this morning.

The exact meaning is shown in speech by stress and intonation, and even in writing it is usually clear from the context and situation. However, confusions sometimes arise. They can usually be avoided by reorganising the sentence. Compare:

The car crash didn't kill him. (Did he live, or did something else kill him?)

It wasn't the car crash that killed him. (Only one possible meaning.)

Negative sentences with because-clauses are often ambiguous.

I didn't sing because Pam was there.

This sentence could mean 'My reason for not singing was that Pam was there' or 'My reason for singing was not that Pam was there'. The first meaning could be shown clearly by putting the because-clause at the beginning.

Because Pam was there, I didn't sing.

372 neither (of): determiner

1 neither + singular noun

We use neither before a singular noun to mean 'not one and not the other

(of two)'.

Can you come on Monday or Tuesday? ~ I'm afraid neither day is possible.

2 neither of + plural

We use neither of before a determiner (for example the, my, these), and before a pronoun. The noun or pronoun is plural.

Neither of my brothers can sing. (NOT Neither my brothers can sing.)

Neither of us saw it happen.

After neither of + noun/pronoun, we use a singular verb in a formal style.

Neither of my sisters is married.

In an informal style, a plural verb is possible.

Neither of my sisters are married.

3 neither used alone

We can use neither without a noun or pronoun, if the meaning is clear

Which one do you want? ~ Neither.

4 pronunciation

In British English, neither can be pronounced both /'naɪðə(r)/ and /'ni:ðə(r)/. In American English, the usual pronunciation is /'ni:ðər/.

373 neither ... nor

This structure is used to join two negative ideas. (It is the opposite of both ... and.) It is usually rather formal.

I neither smoke nor drink. (less formal: I don't smoke or drink.)

The film was neither well made nor well acted.

Sometimes more than two ideas are connected by neither ... nor.

He neither smiled, spoke, nor looked at me.

Neither cannot begin a complete clause in this structure.

He neither smiled ... nor ... (BUT NOT Neither he smiled ... )

When singular subjects are connected by neither ... nor, the verb is normally singular, but it can be plural in a less formal style.

Neither lames nor Virginia was at home. (normal)

Neither lames nor Virginia were at home. (less formal)

See also both ... and (111) and either ... or (175).

For not ... or and not ... nor, see 370.5.

374 neither, nor and not ... either

1 neither and nor

We can use neither and nor as adverbs to mean 'also not'. Neither and nor

come at the beginning of a clause, and are followed by inverted word order (see 302-303): auxiliary verb + subject.

I can't swim. ~ Neither/nor can I. (NOT I also can't.)

Ruth didn't turn up, and neither/nor did Kate. (NOT ... and Kate didn't too.)

In American English, nor is not normally used after and.

2 not either

We can also use not ... either with the same meaning and normal word order.

I can't swim. ~ I can't either.

Ruth didn't turn up, and Kate didn't either.

In very informal speech, me neither (and occasionally me either, especially in AmE) can be used instead of I ... n't either.

I can't swim. ~ Me neither.

3 one negative

Only one negative word (not or neither) is necessary to give a negative

meaning.

Neither did Kate OR Kate didn't either. (NOT Neither didn't Kate OR Kate didn't neither)

For the pronunciation of neither, see 372.   For neither ... nor, see 373.

For other uses of either, see 174-175.   For not ... or and not ... nor, see 370-375.

For so am I, so do I etc, see 541.

For the difference between too/also and either in negative sentences, see 47.

375 next and the next; nearest

1 next week, month etc; the next week, month etc

Next week, month etc (without the) is the week, month etc just after this one. If I am speaking in July, next month is August; in 2006, next year is 2007. The next week, month etc is the period of seven/ thirty / etc days starting at the moment of speaking. On July 15th 2006, the next month is the period from July 15th to August 15th; the next year is the period from July 2006 to July 2007. Compare:

- Goodbye - see you next week. (NOT ... see you the next week.)

I'll be busy for the next week. (= the seven days starting today)

- Next year will be difficult. (= the year starting next January)

The next year will be difficult. (= the twelve months starting now)

The difference between last and the last is similar. See 314.

2 the next three ... etc

Note the word order in expressions with numbers.

I'll be at college for the next three years. (NOT ... the three next years.)

We generally say the next few days, not the next days.

The next few days will be wet.

3 next Sunday etc

When next is used with the names of days or months, it is not always clear

exactly what is meant.

See you next Sunday. ~ Do you mean this coming Sunday or the one after?

To avoid misunderstanding, one can say for example (1) on Sunday, this Sunday, the/this Sunday coming, the/this coming Sunday or (on) Sunday this week, and (2) on Sunday week, a week on Sunday or (on) Sunday next week.

4 place: next and nearest

The nearest is generally preferred for place - it means 'most near in space'.

Excuse me. Where's the nearest tube station? (NOT ... the next tube station).

If you want to find Alan, just look in the nearest pub.

The next can be used for place if we are talking about movement or direction. It means 'after this/that one'.

We get off at the next station. (= the station that we will come to next.)

It's not on this shelf; it's on the next shelf up.

Next can also be used to talk about the nearest position in a row.

My girlfriend lives next door.   Who works in the next office?

The people at the next table were having a terrible argument.

Next to means 'beside'.

Come and sit next to me.

376 no, none and not a/any

1 no: emphatic

No can be used instead of not a or not any when we want to emphasise a negative idea.

Would you believe it? There's no wardrobe in the bedroom! (More emphatic than ... There isn't a wardrobe ... )

Sorry I can't stop. I've got no time. (More emphatic than ... I haven't got any time.)

There were no letters for you this morning, I'm afraid. (More emphatic than There weren't any letters ... )

After no, countable nouns are usually plural unless the sense makes a singular noun necessary. Compare:

He's got no children. (More natural than He's got no child.)

He's got no wife. (More normal than He's got no wives.)

2 none of

Before a determiner (e.g. the, my, this) or a pronoun, we use none of. 

She's done none of the work. (NOT ... no of the work.)

We understood none of his arguments.

I've been to none of those places.   None of us speaks French.

When we use none of with a plural noun or pronoun, the verb can be singular (a little more formal) or plural (a little more informal).

None of my friends is interested. (more formal)

None of my friends are interested. (more informal)

We can use none alone if the meaning is clear.

How many of the books have you read? ~ None.

3 not a/any

We prefer not a/any in objects and complements when the sense is not emphatic. Compare:

He's no fool. (= He's not a fool at all. - emphatic negative)

A whale is not a fish. (NOT A whale is no fish) - the sense is not emphatic.

4 subjects

Not any cannot normally be used with subjects. No and none of are used instead.

No brand of cigarette is completely harmless. (NOT Not any brand ... )

No tourists ever came to our village. (NOT Not any tourists ... )

None of my friends lives near me. (NOT Not any of my friends ... )

5 not used to talk about two

We use neither, not no or none, to talk about two people or things (see 372).

Neither of my parents could be there. (NOT None of my parents ... )

6 nobody etc

Nobody, nothing, no one and nowhere are used in similar ways to no.

I saw nobody. (More emphatic than I didn't see anybody.)

Nobody spoke. (NOT Not anybody spoke.)

For no and not, see 382.

For none and no one, see 380.

For more about any, see 55.

For no as a modifying adverb (e.g. no better), see 57.

377 no doubt

No doubt means 'probably' or 'I suppose', not 'certainly'.

No doubt it'll rain soon.

You're tired, no doubt. I'll make you a cup of tea.

To say that something is certain, we can use there is no doubt that (formal), without any doubt (formal), certainly, definitely.

There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer. (NOT No doubt the world is getting warmer.)

Cycling is certainly healthier than driving. (NOT No doubt cycling is healthier than driving.)

Doubtless is similar to no doubt (but more formal); undoubtedly is similar to there is no doubt that.

For structures with the verb doubt, see 163.

378 no matter

1 conjunction

No matter can be used with who, whose, what, which, where, when and how.

These expressions are conjunctions, used to join clauses together. The meaning is similar to 'it is not important who/what etc'.

I'll love you no matter what you do.

No matter where you go, I'll follow you.

We use a present tense with a future meaning after no matter (see 580).

No matter where you go, you'll find Coca-Cola.

You'll be welcome no matter when you come.

2 no matter who etc and whoever etc

The conjunctions no matter who/what etc are used rather like whoever, whatever etc (see 625). Compare:

- No matter what you say, I won't believe you.

Whatever you say, I won't believe you.

- Phone me when you arrive, no matter how late it is.

Phone me when you arrive, however late it is.

However, clauses with whoever/whatever/whichever can be used as subjects or objects. Clauses with no matter who etc cannot be used in this way.

Whatever you do is fine with me. (BUT NOT No matter what you do is fine with me.)

You can have whichever you like. (BUT NOT You can have no matter which you like.)

3 no matter and it doesn't matter

Because no matter ... is a conjunction, it must be used with two clauses.

No matter when you come, you'll be welcome. (BUT NOT No matter when you come.)

To introduce just one clause, we can use It doesn't matter.

It doesn't matter when you come.

4 use without a verb

However, no matter what can be used at the end of a clause, without a following verb.

I'll always love you, no matter what. (= ... no matter what happens.)

For sentences like Something's the matter with my foot, see 585.

379 no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer

We use no more with nouns to talk about quantity or degree - to say how much.

There's no more bread.

We do not use no more in standard modern English as an adverb to express the idea of actions and situations stopping. Instead, we use no longer (usually before the verb), not ... any longer or not ... any more.

I no longer support the Conservative party. (NOT I no more support ... )

This can't go on any longer.   I'm not helping you any more.

Anymore may be written as one word, especially in American English.

Annie doesn't live here anymore.

380 no one and none

1 no one

No one (also written no-one in British English) means the same as nobody.

It cannot be followed by of.

No one wished me a happy birthday. (NOT No one of my friends ... )

I stayed in all evening waiting, but no one came.

2 none

To express the idea 'not a single one (of)', we can use none (of), not any (of) or not one (of) (more emphatic). No one is not used in this way.

None of my friends wished me a happy birthday.

I haven't read any of his books.

Not one of my shirts is clean. (NOT No one of my shirts ...)

Have you found any blackberries? ~ Not one.

For more about none, see 376.

381 non-affirmative (or 'non-assertive') words

There are some words that are not often used in affirmative sentences - for example any, anybody, ever, yet. When we affirm or assert (that is, when we say that something is true) we normally use other words - for example some, somebody, once, sometimes, already. Compare:

- Somebody telephoned.   - I sometimes go to the theatre.

Did anybody telephone?   Do you ever go to the theatre?

- I've bought you something.   - I met the Prime Minister once.

I haven't bought you anything. Have you ever met the Prime Minister?

- She's already here.   Is she here yet?

Non-affirmative words are common not only in questions and negative sentences, but in other cases where we are not making affirmative statements - for example in if-clauses, after comparisons, and together with adverbs, verbs, prepositions, adjectives and determiners that have a negative kind of meaning.

Let me know if you have any trouble.

I wonder if she found anything.

She writes better than anybody I know.

He seldom says anything.

I've hardly been anywhere since Christmas.

He denied that he had ever seen her.

Please forget that I ever told you anything about it.

I'd rather do it without anybody's help.

It's difficult to understand anything he says.

Few people have ever seen her laugh.

For information about particular non-affirmative words, check in the Index to find the entries for the words in question.

382 not and no

To make a word, expression or clause negative, we use not.

Not surprisingly, we missed the train. (NOT No surprisingly ... )

The students went on strike, but not the teachers. (NOT ... but no the teachers.)

I can see you tomorrow, but not on Thursday.

I have not received his answer.

We can use no with a noun or -ing form to mean 'not any', or 'not a/an'.

No teachers went on strike. (= There weren't any teachers on strike.)

I've got no Thursdays free this term. (= I haven't got any Thursdays ... )

I telephoned, but there was no answer. (= There wasn't an answer.)

NO SMOKING

Sometimes sentences constructed with verb + not and no + noun have similar meanings. The structure with no is usually more emphatic.

There wasn't an answer. / There was no answer.

383 not only

In the rather formal structure not only ... but also, not only and but also can go immediately before the words or expressions that they modify.

We go there not only in winter, but also in summer.

Not only the bathroom was flooded, but also the rest of the house.

The place was not only cold, but also damp.

Mid-position with the verb (see 24) is also possible. In this case, not only is generally used without do.

She not only sings like an angel, but also dances divinely.

She not only plays the piano, but also the violin.

Not only can be moved to the beginning of a clause for emphasis. It is then followed by auxiliary verb + subject; do is used if there is no other auxiliary (for more about this word order, see 302). But can be left out in this case.

Not only has she been late three times; she has also done no work.

Not only do they need clothing, but they are also short of water.

In informal English not only ... but also is not very common; other structures are generally preferred.

We don't only go there in winter. We go in summer too.

384 noun + complement: what can follow a noun?

Many nouns, especially abstract nouns, can be followed by 'complements' - other words and expressions that 'complete' their meaning. These complements can be prepositional phrases, infinitive expressions or clauses (with or without prepositions).

Alan's criticism of the plan made him very unpopular.

I hate the thought of leaving you.

Does she understand the need to keep everything secret?

I admire your belief that you are always right.

There's still the question of whether we're going to pay her.

Many nouns can be followed by more than one kind of complement.

He didn't give any reason for the changes.

You've no reason to get angry.

The main reason why I don't believe her is this.

Not all nouns can be followed by all kinds of complement.

- the idea of marriage   - freedom to choose

the idea that I might get married   freedom of choice

(BUT NOT the idea to get married)   (BUT NOT freedom of choosing)

Note that a related noun and verb may have different kinds of complement.

I have no intention of resigning.

I do not intend to resign.

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which structures are possible after a particular noun. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

For more information about -ing forms after nouns, see 297.

For infinitives after nouns, see 285.

For should in clauses after nouns, see 52l.

For subjunctives in clauses after nouns, see 567.

For the prepositions that are used after some common nouns, see 449.

For prepositions before clauses, see 453.

For structures with preparatory it (e.g. It's a pity that we can't see him), see 446-447.

385 noun + noun (1): basic information

1 milk chocolate; chocolate milk

Many common ideas in English are expressed by noun + noun compounds. In this structure, the first noun modifies or describes the second, a little like an adjective. Compare:

- milk chocolate (a kind of chocolate)

chocolate milk (a kind of milk)

- a horse race (a kind of race)

a race horse (a kind of horse)

- a book case (a kind of case)

mineral water (a kind of water)

Noun + noun expressions can often be changed into structures where the second noun becomes a subject and the first an object.

an oil well (= a well that produces oil)

a sheepdog (= a dog that looks after sheep)

a Birmingham man (= a man who comes from Birmingham)

the airport bus (= the bus that goes to the airport)

2 the first noun is singular

Note that the first noun is usually singular in form, even if it has a plural meaning. (For exceptions, see 531.)

a shoe shop (= a shop that sells shoes)

a horse race (= a race for horses)

trouser pockets (= pockets in trousers)

a toothbrush (= a brush for teeth) 

a ticket office (= an office that sells tickets)

3 articles

Articles belonging to the first (modifying) noun are dropped in noun + noun combinations.

army officers (= officers in the army)

a sun hat (= a hat that protects you against the sun)

4 more than two nouns

More than two nouns can be put together. A group of two nouns can modify a third noun, these can modify a fourth, and so on.

oil production costs   road accident research centre

This kind of structure is very common in newspaper headlines (see 240) because it saves space.

FURNITURE FACTORY PAY CUT ROW

5 other structures

Not all compound ideas can be expressed by a noun + noun structure. Sometimes it is necessary to use a structure with of or another preposition; sometimes a structure with possessive 's is used.

a feeling of disappointment (NOT a disappointment feeling)

letters from home (NOT home letters)   cow's milk (NOT cow milk)

For more details, see 386.

6 pronunciation

Most noun + noun combinations have the main stress on the first noun.

a 'bicycle factory   a 'fruit drink   'ski boots   'coffee beans

However, there are quite a number of exceptions.

a garden 'chair   a fruit 'pie

The difference between noun modifiers and adjectival modifiers is sometimes shown by stress. Compare:

a 'French teacher (noun modifier: a person who teaches French)

a French 'teacher (adjective modifier: a teacher who is French)

To be sure of the stress on a particular combination, it is necessary to check in a good dictionary.

For the stressing of road and street names, see 502.

7 spelling

Some short, common noun + noun combinations are generally written together like single words.

bathroom lampshade seaside (BUT NOT railwaystation)

Others may be written with a hyphen (e.g. letter-box) or separately (e.g. furniture shop). In many cases usage varies, and some combinations can be found written in all three ways (e.g. bookshop, book-shop or book shop). Hyphens are becoming less common in modern English, and (except with very common short combinations like bathroom) it is usually acceptable to write the two words separately.

For more information about the spelling of different kinds of compounds, see 559.

For information about the spelling of particular noun + noun expressions, see a good dictionary.

386 noun + noun (2): advanced points

1 classifying expressions: a sheepdog

The noun + noun structure is mostly used to make 'classifying' expressions, which name a particular kind of thing.

mountain plants (a special group of plants)

mineral water (a sort of water)

a sheepdog (a particular kind of dog)

We use noun + noun especially to talk about things that belong to common well-known classes (so that the two nouns really describe a single idea). In other cases we prefer a preposition structure. Compare:

the postman, the milkman, the insurance man (all well-known kinds of people who may call regularly at a British home)

a man from the health department (not a regular kind of visitor)

More examples:

- He was reading a history book. (a common class of book)

He was reading a book about the moon. (NOT a moon book)

- She was sitting at a corner table in the restaurant. (Restaurants often have corner tables.)

Who's the girl in the corner? (NOT Who's the corner girl?)

- What does that road sign say?

She was showing signs of tiredness. (NOT ... tiredness signs.)

2 containers: a matchbox; a box of matches

Noun + noun is used for particular kinds of container.

a matchbox   a paint tin   a coffee cup

But we use the preposition structure (with of) to talk about a container together with its contents.

a box of matches   a tin of paint   a cup of coffee

3 units, selections and collections: piece, group etc

We also prefer the of-structure with words that refer to units, selections and collections, like piece, slice, lump (of sugar), bunch (of flowers), blade (of grass), pack (of cards), herd, flock, group and so on.

a piece of paper (NOT a paper piece)

a bunch of flowers (NOT a flower bunch)

4 'made of': a silk dress; silken skin

Noun + noun is normally used to say what things are made of.

a silk dress   a stone bridge   an iron rod   a gold ring

In older English, the of-structure was more common in this case (e.g. a dress of silk, a bridge of stone), and it is still used in some metaphorical expressions.

He rules his family with a rod of iron.

The flowers were like a carpet of gold.

A few pairs of nouns and adjectives (e.g. gold, golden) are used as modifiers with different meanings. Generally the noun simply names the material something is made of, while the adjective has a more metaphorical meaning.

Compare:

a gold watch   golden memories

silk stockings   silken skin

a lead pipe   a leaden sky (grey and depressing)

a stone roof   a stony silence

But wooden and woollen just mean 'made of wood/wool'.

5 measurement: a five-litre can

Noun + noun is used in measurements, with a number before the first noun. The number is usually joined to the first noun by a hyphen (-). Note that the first noun is normally singular in form in these cases.

a five-litre can   a ten-pound note 

(NOT a five-litres can, a ten-pounds note)

a six-pound chicken   a three-mile walk   a five-day course

a two-person tent   ten two-hour lessons

The number one is often left out.

a (one-)pint mug

In fractions, the plural -s is not usually dropped.

a two-thirds share (NOT a two-third share)

Exception: three quarters (a three-quarter length coat)

6 noun + 's + noun: children's clothes; a bird's nest

In some classifying expressions we use a structure with possessive's.

This is common when we are talking about things that are used by a person or animal: the first noun refers to the user.

children's clothes   a man's sweater

women's magazines   a bird's nest

Generally, either both nouns are singular or both are plural.

a child's toy   children's clothes

but

a women's magazine

Not all 'used by' expressions have possessive 's.

baby clothes   a birdcage

British and American usage sometimes differ. Compare:

a baby's bottle (BrE)   a baby bottle (AmE)

a baby's pram (BrE)   a baby carriage (AmE)

a doll's house (BrE)   a doll house (AmE)

7 noun + 's + noun: cow's milk; a hen's egg

The 's structure is often used for products from living animals.

cow's milk   lamb's wool

sheep's wool   a bird's egg   a hen's egg

(BUT camel hair, horsehair)

When the animal is killed to provide something, we usually use noun + noun.

calf skin   chamois leather   fox fur

chicken soup   a lamb chop   tortoise shell

8 parts: a man's leg; a table leg

We use the 's structure to talk about parts of people's and animals' bodies.

a man's leg   an elephant's trunk   a sheep's heart

But to talk about parts of non-living things, we usually use the noun + noun structure.

a table leg (NOT a table's leg)

a car door (NOT USUALLY a car's door)

9 pronunciation

Classifying expressions with possessive's most often have the main stress on the first noun. Compare:

- a 'doll's house (a kind of house)

my brother's 'house (not a kind of house)

- 'goat's milk (a kind of milk)

the goat's 'tail (not a kind of tail)

Here, too, there are exceptions.

a child's 'bicycle (a kind of bicycle)

For the use of structures with 's to talk about possession, relationships etc, see 440.

10 noun + noun, noun + 's + noun, or preposition structure?

This is a very complicated area of English grammar. The 'rules' given above show the general patterns, but unfortunately there is no easy way to be quite sure which structure is used to express a particular compound idea. The most common expressions will be learnt by experience; in cases of doubt, a good dictionary will often show which form is correct.

387 now (that)

Now (that) can be used as a conjunction. In an informal style, that is often dropped (see 584).

Now (that) Andrew is married, he has become much more responsible.

Now the exams are over I can enjoy myself

388 nowadays

Nowadays is an adverb meaning 'these days', 'at the present time'.

People seem to be very depressed nowadays.

Nowadays we think nothing of space travel.

Nowadays cannot be used as an adjective.

I don't like modern fashions. (NOT I don't like the nowadays fashions.)

389 numbers

1 fractions and decimals: two fifths; nought point four

We say simple fractions like this:

¹/₄  a/one quarter     ¹¹/₁₆  eleven sixteenths

¹/₈  an/one eighth     3³/4  three and three quarters

³/₇  three sevenths     6¹/₈  six and one eighth

²/₅  two fifths

More complex fractions can be expressed by using the word over.

³¹⁷/₅₀₉   three hundred and seventeen over five hundred and nine

We write and say decimals like this:

0.4  nought point four (NOT nought comma four)

0.375  nought point three seven five (NOT nought point three hundred and seventy five)

4.7  four point seven

For the difference between a(n) and one with numbers, see paragraph 11 below.

2 before nouns

With fractions below 1, we use of before nouns.

three quarters of an hour

seven tenths of a mile

a third of the students

Half is not always followed by of (see 231).

half an hour   half (of) the students

Of is also possible with decimals below 1.

nought point six of a mile

0.1625 cm  nought point one six two five of a centimetre

However, decimals below 1 are often followed directly by plural nouns.

nought point six miles (NOT nought point six mile)

nought point one three two five centimetres

Fractions and decimals over 1 are normally followed by plural nouns.

one and a half hours (NOT one and a half hour)

three and three eighths miles

1.3 millimetres (NOT 1.3 millimetre)

Nate also the structure a ... and a half.

I've been waiting for an hour and a half.

3 singular or plural verbs

Singular verbs are normally used after fractions, decimals, and other expressions referring to amounts and measurements (for more details, see 527).

Three quarters of a ton is too much. (NOT Three quarters of a ton are ... )

3.6 kilometres is about 2 miles.

But plural verbs are used when we are talking about numbers of people or things, even after a singular fraction.

A third of the students are from abroad. (NOT A third of the students is ... )

Half of the glasses are broken.

After expressions like one in three, one out of five + plural noun, both singular and plural verbs are possible.

One in three new cars break/breaks down in the first year.

4 nought, zero, nil etc

The figure 0 is usually called nought in British English and zero in American English. When we say numbers one figure at a time, 0 is often called oh (like the letter O).

My account number is four one three oh six.

In measurements of temperature, 0 is called zero in both British and American English. Zero is followed by a plural noun.

Zero degrees Celsius is thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.

Zero scores in team games are called nil (American zero or nothing). In tennis and similar games, the word love is used (originally from French l'oeuf, meaning 'the egg' - the figure 0 is egg-shaped).

And the score at half-time is: Scotland three, England nil.

Forty-love; Andrews to serve.

5 telephone numbers

We say each figure separately, pausing after groups of three or four (not two).

When the same figure comes twice, British people usually say double.

307 4922  three oh seven, four nine double two

(AmE three zero seven, four nine two two)

6 Roman numbers

Roman numbers (I, II, III, IV etc) are not common in modern English, but they are still used in a few cases - for example the names of kings and queens, page numbers in the introductions to some books, the numbers of paragraphs in some documents, the numbers of questions in some examinations, the figures on some old clock faces, and occasionally the names of centuries.

It was built in the time of Henry V.

For details, see Introduction page ix.

Do question (vi) or question (vii), but not both.

a fine XVIII Century English walnut chest of drawers

The Roman numbers normally used are as follows:

1 I i | 10 X x | 40 XL xl
2 II ii | 11 XI xi | 45 XLV xlv
30 III iii | 12 XII xii | 50 L l
4 IV iv | 13 XIII xiii | 60 LX lx
5 V v | 14 XIV xiv | 90 XC xc
6 VI vi | 19 XIX xix | 100 C c
7 VII vii | 20 XX xx | 500 D
8 VIII viii | 21 XXI xxi | 1000 M
9 IX ix | 30 XXX xxx | 1995 MCMXCV

7 cardinal and ordinal numbers: books, chapters etc; kings and queens

After a noun we usually use a cardinal number (one, two etc) instead of an ordinal number (first, second etc). This structure is common in titles. Compare:

the fourth book - Book Four   the third act - Act Three

Mozart's thirty-ninth symphony - Symphony No. 39, by Mozart

the third day of the course - Timetable for Day Three

However, the names of kings and queens are said with ordinal numbers.

Henry VIII: Henry the Eighth (NOT Henry Eight)

Louis XIV· Louis the Fourteenth

Elizabeth II: Elizabeth the Second

8 centuries

Note how the names of centuries relate to the years in them. The period from 1701 - 1800 is called the 18th century (not the 17th); 1801 - 1900 is the 19th century, etc.

9 floors

The ground floor of a British house is the first floor of an American house; the British first floor is the American second floor, etc.

10 and; punctuation

In British English we always put and between hundred/thousand/million and numbers below a hundred. In American English, and can be dropped.

310 three hundred and ten (AmE also three hundred ten)

5,642 five thousand, six hundred and forty-two

2,025 two thousand and twenty-five

In measurements containing two different units, and is possible before the smaller, but is usually left out.

two hours (and) ten minutes

two metres (and) thirty centimetres

In writing we generally use commas (,) to divide large numbers into groups of three figures, by separating off the thousands and the millions. Full stops (.) are not used in this way.

3,127 (NOT 3.127)   5,466,243

We do not always use commas in four-figure numbers, and they are not used in dates.

4,126 OR 4126   the year 1648

Spaces are also possible.

There are 1 000 millimetres in a metre.

Note the hyphen between the tens and units in twenty-one, twenty-two, thirty-six, forty-nine etc.

11 a and one

We can say an eighth or one eighth, a hundred or one hundred, a thousand or one thousand, a million or one million, etc. One is more formal.

I want to live for a hundred years. (NOT ... for hundred years)

Pay Mr J Baron one thousand pounds. (on a cheque)

A can only be used at the beginning of a number. Compare:

a/one hundred 

three thousand one hundred (NOT three thousand a hundred)

A thousand can be used alone, and before and, but not usually before a number of hundreds. Compare:

a/one thousand   a/one thousand and forty-nine

one thousand, six hundred and two (More natural than a thousand, six hundred and two.)

We can use a or one with measurement words. The rules are similar.

a/one kilometre (BUT one kilometre, six hundred metres)

an/one hour and seventeen minutes (BUT one hour, seventeen minutes)

a/one pound (BUT one pound twenty-five)

12 numbers with determiners

Numbers can be used after determiners. Before determiners, a structure with of is necessary.

You're my one hope.

One of my friends gave me this. (NOT One my friend ... )

13 eleven hundred etc

In an informal style we often use eleven hundred, twelve hundred etc instead of one thousand one hundred etc. This is most common with round numbers between 1,100 and 1,900.

We only got fifteen hundred pounds for the car.

This form is used in historical dates (see 152).

He was born in thirteen hundred.

It was built in fifteen (hundred and) twenty-nine.

14 billion

A billion is a thousand million. (But in older British usage a billion was a million million.)

15 five hundred etc without -s

After a number, the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million and billion have no final -s, and of is not used. This also happens after several and a few.

Compare:

- five hundred pounds   - a few million years

hundreds of pounds   millions of years

- several thousand times

It cost thousands.

Singular forms are used as modifiers before nouns in plural measuring expressions.

a five-pound note (NOT a five pounds note)

a three-mile walk   a four-foot deep hole

six two-hour lessons   a six-foot tall man

a three-month-old baby

In an informal style, we often use foot instead of feet in other structures, especially when we talk about people's heights.

My father's just over six foot two.

For the use of be in measurements, see 92.

For the use of possessive forms in expressions of time (e.g. ten minutes' walk; four days' journey), see 440-444.

16 British money (pre-euro)

There are 100 pence in a pound. Sums of money are named as follows:

1p one penny (informal one p (/pi:/) or a penny)

5p five pence (informal five p)

£3.75 three pounds seventy-five (pence) OR three pounds and seventy-five pence (more formal)

Some people now use the plural pence as a singular in informal speech; pound is sometimes used informally as a plural.

That's two pounds and one pence, please.

It cost me eight pound fifty.

Singular forms are used in expressions like a five-pound note (see above).

However, pence is often used instead of penny (a five pence stamp).

17 American money

There are 100 cents (¢) in a dollar ($). One-cent coins are called pennies; five-cent coins are nickels; ten-cent coins are dimes; a twenty-five cent coin is a quarter.

18 non-metric measures

In recent years, Britain has adopted some metric measurement units, but nonmetric measures are still quite widely used. America uses mainly non-metric units. Approximate values are as follows:

1 inch (1 in) = 2.5 cm

12 inches = 1 foot (30 cm)

3 feet (3 ft) = 1 yard (90 cm)

5,280 feet / 1,760 yards = 1 mile (1.6 km)

5 miles = 8 km

1 ounce (1 oz) = 28 gm

16 ounces = 1 pound (455 gm)

2.2 pounds (2.2 lb) = 1 kg

14 pounds (14 lb) = 1 stone (6.4 kg) (BrE only)

1 British pint = 56.8 cl

1 US pint = 47.3 cl

8 pints (8 pt) = 1 gallon

1 British gallon = 4.55 litres

1 US gallon = 3.78 litres

1 acre = 4,840 square yards = 0.4 hectares

1 square mile = 640 acres = 259 ha

British people measure their weight in stones and pounds or (more recently) in kilograms; Americans just use pounds. Height is measured in feet; distance can also be measured in feet, but longer distances are often measured in yards, especially in British English.

I weigh eight stone six. (NOT ... eight stones six)

We are now flying at an altitude of 28,000 feet.

The car park's straight on, about 500 yards on the right.

19 area and volume

We say, for example, that a room is twelve feet by fifteen feet, or that a garden is thirty metres by forty-eight metres.

A room twelve feet by twelve feet can be called twelve feet square; the total area is 144 square feet.

A container 2 metres by 2 metres by 3 metres has a volume of 12 cubic metres.

20 a and per

When we relate two different measures, we usually use a/an; per is often used in formal writing.

It costs two pounds a week. (OR ... £2 per week.)

We're doing seventy miles an hour. (OR ... 70 miles per hour / mph.)

21 numbers not used as complements after be

Numbers are used as subjects or objects. but not usually as complements

after be.

I've got three sisters. (NOT My sisters are three.)

There are twelve of us in my family. (More natural than We are twelve ... )

22 spoken calculations

Common ways of saying calculations in British English are:

2 + 2 = 4
Two and two is/are four. (informal)
Two plus two equals/is four. (formal)

7 - 4 = 3
Four from seven is/leaves three. (informal)
Seven take away four is/leaves three. (informal)
Seven minus four equals/is three. (formal)

3 x 4 = 12
Three fours are twelve. (informal)
Three times four is twelve. (informal)
Three multiplied by four equals/is twelve. (formal)

9 ÷ 3 = 3
Three(s) into nine goes three (times). (informal)
Nine divided by three equals/is three. (formal)

23 example of a spoken calculation

Here, for interest, is a multiplication (146x 281) together with all its steps, in the words that a British English speaker might have used as he/she was

working it out on paper before the days of pocket calculators.

   146

x  281

29200

11680

    146

 41026

A hundred and forty-six times two hundred and eighty-one.

beginning: | Put down two noughts. Two sixes are twelve; put down two and carry one; two fours are eight and one are nine; two ones are two.
next line: | Put down one nought. Eight sixes are forty-eight; put down eight and carry four; eight fours are thirty-two and four is thirty-six; put down six and carry three; eight ones are eight and three is eleven.
next line: | One times 146 is 146.
addition: | Six and nought and nought is six; eight and four and nought is twelve; put down two and carry one; six and two are eight and one is nine and one is ten; put down nought and carry one; nine and one are ten and one is eleven; put down one and carry one; two and one are three and one are four.
total: | forty-one thousand and twenty-six.

Note how is and are can often be used interchangeably.

For ways of saying and writing dates. see 152.

For ways of telling the time, see 579.

390 of course

We use of course (not) to mean 'as everybody knows' or 'as is obvious'.

It looks as if the sun goes round the earth, but of course that's not true.

We'll leave at eight o'clock. Granny won't be coming, of course.

Of course can be used as a polite reply to a request.

Could you help me? ~ Of course.

But of course is not always a very polite reply to a statement of fact.

It's cold. ~ It certainly is. (NOT Of course it is - this would suggest that the first speaker had said something too obvious to be worth mentioning.)

For the use of of course to structure arguments, see 157.5.

391 often

Often is mostly used for habitual behaviour, to mean 'a lot of times on different occasions'. To say 'a lot of times on one occasion', we normally use another expression (e.g. a lot of times, several times, keep ... ing). Compare:

I often fell in love when I was younger.

I fell several times yesterday when I was skiing. OR I kept falling yesterday ... (NOT I often fell yesterday ... )

Note that often has two common pronunciations, with and without t: /'ɒfən/ and /'ɒftən/.

For the position of often and other adverbs of indefinite frequency, see 24.

392 older English verb forms

The English of a few hundred years ago was different in many ways from modern English - grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling have all changed greatly since Shakespeare's time. Some of the most striking differences are in the way verbs are used. Older English had distinct second person singular verb forms ending in -st, with a corresponding second-person singular pronoun thou (object form thee, possessives thy, thine). There were also third-person singular verb forms ending in -th, and ye could be used as a second-person plural pronoun.

Tell me what thou knowest.   How can I help thee?

Where thy master goeth, there goest thou also.

Oh come, all ye faithful.

Older forms of be included second-person singular art and wert.

I fear thou art sick.   Wert thou at work today?

Questions and negatives were originally made without do; later, forms with and without do (including affirmative forms with do) were both common.

Came you by sea or by land?   Be not afraid.

They know not what they do.   Then he did take my hand and kiss it.

Simple tenses were often used in cases where modern English has progressive forms.

We go not out today, for it raineth.

Subjunctives (see 567) were more widely used than in modern English.

If she be here, then tell her I wait her pleasure.

Inversion (see 302-303) was more common, and infinitives and past participles could come later in a clause than in modern English.

Now are we lost indeed.

Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. (Shakespeare)

And she me caught in her arms long and small

and therewithal so sweetly did me kiss

and softly said 'Dear heart, how like you this?' (Wyatt)

Some of these forms were still used in 19th-century and early 20th-century literature (particularly poetry) long after they had died out of normal usage.

Modern writers of historical novels, films or plays often make their characters use some of these older forms in order to give a 'period' flavour to the language. And the forms also survive in certain contexts where tradition is especially valued - for example the language of religious services, public ceremonies and the law. Some dialects, too, preserve forms which have disappeared from the rest of the language - second-person singular pronouns (tha, thee etc) are still used by many people in Yorkshire.

393 once: adverb

When once means 'at some time', we use it for the past but not for the future. To refer to an indefinite future time, we can use sometime or one day. Compare:

- I met her once in Venezuela.

Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess.

- Come up and see me sometime. (NOT Come up and see me once.)

We must go walking one day. (NOT We must go walking once.)

When once has the more precise meaning of 'one time (not twice or three times)', it can be used to talk about any time, including the future.

I'm only going to say this once.

Note that at once means 'immediately'.

Can I have the bill? ~At once, sir.

394 once: conjunction

Once can be used as a conjunction, meaning 'after', 'as soon as'. It often suggests that something is finished or completed, and is most often used with a perfect tense.

Once you've passed your test I'll let you drive my car.

Once he had found somewhere to live he started looking for work.

Once you know how to ride a bike you never forget it.

Note that we do not use that after once (NOT Once that you've passed your test ... ).

For present perfect instead of future perfect after conjunctions, see 580.

395 one: substitute word

1 use

We often use one instead of repeating a singular countable noun.

Which is your boy? ~ The one in the blue coat.

I'd like a cake. A big one with lots of cream.

Can you lend me a pen? ~ Sorry, I haven't got one.

2 a ... one

We drop a if there is no adjective. Compare:

I'm looking for a flat. I'd like a small one with a garden.

I'd like one with a garden. (NOT ... a one with a garden.)

3 ones

One has a plural ones.

I'd like to try on those shoes. ~ Which ones? ~ The ones in the window.

Green apples often taste better than red ones.

What sort of sweets do you like? ~ Ones with chocolate inside.

4 uncountable nouns

We do not use one(s) for uncountable nouns. Compare:

If you haven't got a fresh chicken I'll take a frozen one.

If you haven't got fresh cream I'll take tinned (cream). (NOT ... tinned one.)

5 which (one), this (one) etc

We can leave out one(s) immediately after which, this, that, another, either, neither and superlatives.

Which (one) would you like? ~ This (one) looks the nicest.

Let's have another (one).   Either (one) will suit me.

I think my dog's the fastest (one).

But we cannot leave out one(s) if there is an adjective.

This blue one looks the nicest. (NOT This blue looks ... )

We nearly always leave out ones after these and those.

I don't think much of these. (More natural than ... these ones.)

6 not used after my etc, some, several, a few, both or a number

We do not use one(s) immediately after my, your etc, some, several, (a) few, both or a number.

Take your coat and pass me mine. (NOT ... pass me my one.)

Are there any grapes? ~ Yes, I bought some today. (NOT ... I bought some ones today.)

I'll take both. (NOT both ones.)

She bought six. (NOT six ones.)

But one(s) is used if there is an adjective.

I'll wear my old one. (NOT ... my old.)

I bought some sweet ones today. (NOT I bought some sweet today.)

Has the cat had her kittens? ~ Yes, she's had four white ones. (NOT four white.)

7 that of

One(s) is not normally used after a noun with possessive 's. Instead, we can either just drop one(s), or use a structure with that/those of (more formal).

A grandparent's job is easier than a parent's. (NOT ... than a parent's one.)

A grandparent's job is easier than that of a parent. (NOT ... than the one of a parent.)

Trollope's novels are more entertaining than those of Dickens. (NOT ... than Dickens' ones / the ones of Dickens.)

8 noun modifiers

One(s) is not generally used after noun modifiers.

Do you need coffee cups or tea cups? (NOT ... or tea ones.)

9 One(s) always refers back

We use one(s) to avoid repeating a noun which has been mentioned before. It cannot normally be used in other cases.

Let's go and ask the old man for advice. (NOT ... ask the old one ... )

396 one, you and they: indefinite personal pronouns

1 one and you: meaning

We can use one or you to talk about people in general, including the speaker and hearer.

One/You cannot learn a language in six weeks.

One/You should never give people advice.

2 one and you: formality and class

One is more formal than you (and more common in writing than in speech). Compare:

If you want to make people angry, you just have to tell them the truth.

If one wishes to make oneself thoroughly unpopular, one has merely to tell people the truth.

One is often considered typical of more upper-class and intellectual usage, and is avoided by many people for this reason.

3 one and you: only used in generalisations

One and you are only used in this way in very general statements, when we are talking about 'anyone, at any time'. Compare:

- One/You can usually find people who speak English in Sweden.

English is spoken in this shop. OR They speak English in this shop. (NOT One speaks English ... - the meaning is not 'people in general')

- One/You should knock before going into somebody's room.

Somebody's knocking at the door. (NOT One is knocking ... )

- It can take you/one ages to get served in this pub.

Thanks, I'm being served. (NOT Thanks, one is serving me.)

One generally has a singular meaning: 'any individual'; it is not used to refer to whole groups.

We speak a strange dialect where I come from. (NOT One speaks a strange dialect where I come from.)

4 people including the speaker/hearer

One is not used for people who could not include the speaker; you is not used for people who could not include the hearer. Compare:

One/You must believe in something.

In the sixteenth century people believed in witches. (NOT ... one/you believed in witches - this could not include the speaker or hearer.)

5 one/you as subject, object etc

One can be a subject or object; there is a possessive one's and a reflexive pronoun oneself.

He talks to one like a teacher.   One's family can be very difficult.

One should always give oneself plenty of time to pack.

You/your/yourself can be used in similar ways.

6 they

They has a rather different, less general kind of meaning than one and you. It usually refers to a particular but rather vague group (for example the neighbours, the people around, the authorities).

They don't like strangers round here.

They're going to widen the road soon.

I bet they put taxes up next year.

Note also the common expression they say (= people say).

They say her husband's been seeing that Mrs Hastings again. (NOT One says ... )

397 one of ...

After one of we normally use a plural form.

one of our cats (NOT one of our cat)

Occasionally one of is used with a singular noun referring to a group.

Why don't you ask one of the crew?

A following verb is normally singular.

One of our cats has disappeared. (NOT One of our cats have disappeared.)

After one of, a noun phrase must have a determiner (e.g. the, my, those).

one of the/my/those horses (BUT NOT one of horses)

Of cannot be dropped.

one of my friends (NOT one my friend OR one my friends)

For sentences like She's one of the only women who have/has climbed Everest, see 529.

398 only: focusing adverb

Only can be used as a 'focusing adverb' (see 24.6). It can refer to different parts of a sentence.

1 referring to the subject

Only normally comes before a subject that it refers to.

Only you could do a thing like that.

Only my mother really understands me.

2 referring to other parts of a sentence

When only refers to another part of a sentence, it often goes in 'mid-position' with the verb (see 24 for details).

She only reads biographies.   She is only on duty on Tuesdays.

I only like swimming in the sea.   I've only been to India once.

She was only talking like that because she was nervous.

3 ambiguous sentences

Sometimes sentences with only are ambiguous (they can be understood in more than one way).

I only kissed your sister last night. (The sense can be 'only kissed', 'only your sister' or 'only last night'.)

In speech, the meaning is usually clear because the speaker stresses the part of the sentence that only refers to. Even in writing, the context generally stops sentences like these from being really ambiguous. However, if necessary only can be put directly before the object, complement or adverbial expression that it refers to. This is rather formal. Compare:

They only play poker on Saturday nights. (could be ambiguous)

They play only poker on Saturday nights.

They play poker only on Saturday nights.

The meaning can also be made more precise with a relative structure.

Poker is the only game (that) they play on Saturday nights.

Saturday nights are the only time (that) they play poker.

4 only today etc

Only with a time expression can mean 'as recently as', 'not before'.

I saw her only today - she looks much better.

My shoes will only be ready on Friday.

Only then did she realise what she had agreed to.

For inverted word order after only, as in the last example above, see 302.

399 open

1 open and opened

We normally use open, not opened, as an adjective.

I can read you like an open book. (NOT ... an opened book.)

Are the banks open this afternoon? (NOT Are the banks opened ... ?)

Opened is used as the past tense and past participle of the verb open, to talk about the action of opening.

She opened her eyes and sat up.   The safe was opened with dynamite.

2 when open is not used

Note that open is not the normal word to refer to the fastenings of clothes, or to switches or taps.

I can't untie/undo this shoelace. (NOT I can't open this shoelace.)

How do you unfasten this belt?

Could you turn/switch the radio on? (NOT ... open the radio?)

Who left the taps turned on? (NOT Who left the taps open?)

For closed and shut, see 132.

400 opportunity and possibility

We often say that somebody has the opportunity to do / of doing something.

I have the opportunity to go to Denmark next year. (= I can go ... )

Possibility is not often used in this structure. It is more normal to say that there is a possibility of something happening.

There's a possibility of my going to Denmark next year. (= I may go ... ) (NOT I have the possibility to go to Denmark ... )

401 opposite (adjective): position

We put the adjective opposite before a noun when we are talking about one of a pair of things that naturally face or contrast with each other.

I think the picture would look better on the opposite wall.

She went off in the opposite direction.

I've got exactly the opposite opinion to yours.

His brother was fighting on the opposite side.

We put opposite after the noun when it means 'facing the speaker or listener' or 'facing a person or place that has already been mentioned'.

I noticed that the man opposite was staring at me (NOT ... the opposite man was staring at me.)

You can see the cinema programmes on the notice opposite.

The man she was looking for was in the shop directly opposite.

For opposite and in front of, see 402.

For opposite and contrary, see 144.

402 opposite, facing and in front of

1 'across a road/room etc from': opposite/facing

We do not use in front of to mean 'across a road/river/room etc from'. This

idea is usually expressed with opposite or facing. (AmE also across from.)

There's a garage opposite my house. (NOT ... in front of my house.)

She stood at the other side of the table facing me. (Nor ... in front of me.)

The man sitting across from me was smoking a pipe. (AmE)

2 in front of and opposite

Compare:

There's a bus stop in front of the school. (The bus stop is on the same side of the road as the school.)

There's a bus stop opposite the school. (The bus stop is on the other side of the road from the school.)

In front of is often the opposite of behind.

The woman in front of me in the post-office queue had a complicated problem. I always find myself behind people like that.

3 in front of and in the front of

If you are in front of a place, vehicle etc you are outside it; if you are in the front of it you are inside. Compare:

We stood in front of her car so that she couldn't drive off.

Her husband was sitting in the front of the car. He looked frightened.

For the difference between before and in front of, see 98.

403 ought

1 forms

Ought is a modal auxiliary verb (see 353-354). The third person singular has no -s.

She ought to understand. (NOT She oughts ... )

Questions and negatives are made without do.

Ought we to go now? (NOT Do we ought ... ?)

It oughtn't to rain today.

After ought, we use the infinitive with to before other verbs. (This makes ought different from other modal auxiliary verbs.)

You ought to see a dentist.

To is not used in question tags.

We ought to wake Helen, oughtn't we? (NOT ... oughtn't we to?)

In American English, interrogative and contracted negative forms of ought to are rare; should is generally used instead.

He ought to be here soon, shouldn't he?

In some English dialects, questions and negatives are made with did (e.g. She didn't ought to do that), but this structure is not used in standard English.

2 obligation: I ought to phone Mother

We can use ought to advise people (including ourselves) to do things; to tell people that they have a duty to do things; to ask about our duty. The meaning is very similar to that of should; it is not so strong as must (see 520). Ought is less frequent than should.

What time ought I to arrive?

I really ought to phone Mother.

People ought not to drive like that.

He ought to get a medal for living with her.

There ought to be traffic lights at this crossroads.

3 deduction: He ought to be here soon

We can also use ought (like should) to say that we guess or conclude that something is probable (because it is logical or normal).

Henry ought to be here soon - he left home at six.

We're spending the winter in Miami. ~ That ought to be nice.

The weather ought to improve after the weekend.

4 questions

The normal question forms of ought are rather formal. In an informal style they are often avoided, for example by using a structure with think ... ought or by using should.

Do you think we ought to go now? (Less formal than Ought we to ... ?)

Should we go now?

5 ought to have ...

Ought has no past form, but we can use ought to have + past participle to talk about things which were supposed to happen but did not.

I ought to have phoned Ed this morning, but I forgot. (NOT I ought to phone Ed this morning, but I forgot.)

The structure can also be used to make guesses or draw conclusions about things which are not certain to have happened.

Bill ought to have got back home yesterday. Has anybody seen him?

It is also possible to talk about things that ought to have happened by now, or by a future time.

Ten o'clock. She ought to have arrived at her office by now.

We ought to have finished painting the house by the end of next week.

6 word order

Mid-position adverbs like always, never, really (see 24) can go before or after ought in a verb phrase. The position before ought is less formal.

You always ought to carry some spare money. (less formal)

You ought always to carry some spare money. (more formal)

In negative clauses, not comes before to.

You ought not to go. / You oughtn't to go. (NOT You ought to not go.)

404 out of

1 movement

The opposite of the preposition into is out of.

She ran out of the room. (NOT She ran out the room. OR She ran out/from the room.)

I took Harry's letter out of my pocket.

Out of is also used to mean 'through', when we mention the opening through which somebody/something goes out.

I walked out of the front door without looking back.

Why did you throw the paper out of the window?

In American English, out is normally used without of in this case.

She turned and went out the back door. (AmE)

2 position

Out of can also be used to talk about position - the opposite of in.

I'm afraid Mr Pallery is out of the office at the moment.

For into and in, see 269.

405 own

1 after possessives

We only use own after a possessive word. It cannot directly follow an article.

It's nice if a child can have his or her own room. (NOT ... an own room.)

Car hire is expensive. It's cheaper to take one's own car. (NOT ... the own car.)

I'm my own boss.

2 a/some ... of one's own

This structure makes it possible to include a/an, some or another determiner in the phrase.

I'd like to have a car of my own.

It's time you found some friends of your own.

He's got no ideas of his own.

3 own with no following noun

We cannot use mine, yours etc with own, but we can drop a noun after my own, your own etc if the meaning is clear.

Would you like to use my pen? ~ No, thanks. I can only write with my own. (NOT ... mine own.)

4 own and -self

The emphatic and reflexive pronouns myself, yourself etc (see 493) do not have possessive forms. My own etc is used instead.

I'll do it myself, and I'll do it in my own way. (NOT ... in myself's way.)

She can wash herself and brush her own hair now. (NOT ... brush herself's hair)

5 on one's own

Note the two meanings of on one's own.

My mother lives on her own. (without company)

Don't help him. Let him do it on his own. (without help)

For by oneself used in similar ways, see 493.6.

406 paragraphs

Written English text is usually divided into blocks called 'paragraphs', to make it easier to read. Paragraphs can vary in length, from several hundred words (for example in literary or academic writing), to a few sentences (for example in journalism or letters). A paragraph division is usually shown by starting the text on a new line and 'indenting' (leaving a space at the beginning of the line).

The paragraph divisions break the material up into easily 'digestible' sections, providing places where the reader can pause and think for a moment if necessary. And good writers can show the structure of their texts by making paragraph divisions in suitable places, for example when they move to a new stage in a story, a new point in a discussion or a new part of a description.

Bill decided that it was too late to start slimming, and put some more sugar in his coffee. The way things were, he needed all the help he could get. Everything was going wrong at work, everything had already gone wrong at home, and the weather in Edinburgh in November was lousy. The only remaining question was: should he commit suicide now or wait till after payday and get drunk first?

[a new stage in the story]  Three months ago everything had seemed so perfect. His boss had told him that he had an excellent future with the firm.

There are a lot of advantages to working at home. You don't have to travel to your job, you can choose your own working hours, you can take a day off if you want to, you don't waste time in endless unnecessary meetings, and - perhaps most important of all - you don't have a boss constantly checking up on you.

[a new point in the discussion]  On the other hand, it can be lonely working by yourself. Without colleagues around you ...

Another practice, common in typed letters and documents, is to leave a blank line without indenting.

Dear Sirs

Three months ago I sent you an order for a set of glasses, together with a cheque in full payment. You wrote acknowledging my order, and said that the glasses would be dispatched within 15 days.

I have still not received the glasses, and repeated telephone calls to your office have had no result ...

407 part

A is usually dropped before part of if there is no adjective.

Part of the roof was missing. (BUT A large part of the roof was missing.)

Part of the trouble is that I can't see very well. (More natural than A part of the trouble ... )

Jan was in Australia part of last year.

408 participles (-ing and -ed forms) (1): introduction

1 names

When -ing forms are used in certain ways, for example as parts of verb forms, or like adjectives (see below) they are called 'present participles'. Forms like broken, gone, opened, started are called 'past participles'. These are not very suitable names: both forms can be used to talk about the past, present or future.

She was crying when I saw her.

Who's the man talking to Elizabeth?

This time tomorrow I'll be lying on the beach.

It was broken in the storm.   The kids are excited.

The new school is going to be opened next week.

For the spelling of participles, see 560-562.

For -ing forms used like nouns ('gerunds'), in sentences like Smoking is bad for you, see 293-299.

2 use

a) verb forms

Participles are used with the auxiliary verbs be and have to make progressive, perfect and passive verb forms.

It was raining when I got home.

I've forgotten your name.   You'll be told as soon as possible.

Present and past participles can be put together to make progressive and perfect forms (e.g. being employed, having arrived, having been invited).

b) adjectives

Participles can be used like adjectives.

I love the noise of falling rain.

She says she's got a broken heart.

John has become very boring.

The house looked abandoned.

c) adverbs

Sometimes participles are used like adverbs.

She ran screaming out of the room.

d) clauses

Participles can combine with other words into clause-like structures.

Who's the fat man sitting in the corner?

Having lost all my money, I went home.

Most of the people invited to the party didn't turn up.

Rejected by all his friends, he decided to become a monk.

For details of these uses, see the following sections.

409 participles (2): active and passive

1 active present participles, passive past participles

When -ing forms are used like adjectives or adverbs, they have similar meanings to active verbs.

falling leaves (= leaves that fall)

a meat-eating animal (= an animal that eats meat)

She walked out smiling. (= She was smiling.)

Most past participles have passive meanings when they are used like adjectives or adverbs.

a broken heart (= a heart that has been broken)

He lived alone, forgotten by everybody. (= He had been forgotten by everybody.)

2 interested and interesting etc

Interested, bored, excited etc say how people feel.

Interesting, boring etc describe the people or things that cause the feelings. Compare:

- I was very interested in the lesson. (NOT I was very interesting in the lesson.)

The lesson was really interesting.

- I didn't enjoy the party because I was bored. (NOT ... because I was boring.)

It was a terribly boring party.

- The children always get excited when Granny comes. (NOT The children always get exciting ... )

Granny takes the children to exciting places.

- His explanations make me very confused. (NOT ... make me very confusing.)

He's a very confusing writer.

3 exceptions: a fallen leaf, an escaped prisoner etc

A few past participles can be used as adjectives with active meanings, especially before nouns. Examples:

a fallen leaf (= a leaf that has fallen)

advanced students (= students who have advanced to a high level, NOT students who have been advanced ... )

developed countries   a grown-up daughter

increased activity   an escaped prisoner

vanished civilisations   faded colours

a retired general   swollen ankles

Rescuers are still working in the ruins of the collapsed hotel.

4 active past participles: advanced points

Some more past participles can be used with active meanings, but only with adverbs. Examples:

a well-read person (BUT NOT a read person)

a much-travelled man   recently-arrived immigrants

The train just arrived at platform six is the delayed 13.15 from Hereford.

Some active past participles can be used after be. Examples:

She is retired now.   Those curtains are badly faded.

My family are all grown up now   This class is the most advanced.

Recovered, camped, stopped, finished (see 205) and gone (see 229) are used in this way after be, but not usually before nouns.

Why are all those cars stopped at the crossroads? (BUT NOT ... a stopped car)

I hope you're fully recovered from your operation.

We're camped in the field across the stream.

I'll be finished in a few minutes.   Those days are gone now.

410 participles (3): details

1 used as adjectives: an interesting book

Participles can often be used as adjectives before nouns, or after be and other link verbs.

an interesting book   a lost dog

a falling leaf   The upstairs toilet window is broken.

screaming children His idea seems exciting.

Participles used as adjectives can have objects. Note the word order.

English-speaking Canadians. (NOT speaking English Canadians.)

a fox-hunting man   Is that watch self-winding?

Other compound structures with participles are also common before nouns.

quick-growing trees   government-inspired rumours

home-made cake   the above-mentioned point

a recently-built house

2 after nouns: the people questioned

We often use participles after nouns in order to define or identify the nouns, in the same way as we use identifying relative clauses (see 495).

We couldn't agree on any of the problems discussed. (= ... the problems that were discussed.) (NOT ... the discussed problems.)

The people questioned gave very different opinions. (= The people who were questioned ... ) (NOT The questioned people ... )

I watched the match because I knew some of the people playing. (NOT ... the playing people.)

I got the only ticket left. (NOT ... the only left ticket.)

Those is often used with a participle to mean 'the ones who are/were'.

Most of those questioned refused to answer.

Those selected will begin training on Monday.

3 differences of meaning

A few participles change their meaning according to their position. Compare:

- a concerned expression (= a worried expression)

the people concerned (= the people who are/were affected)

- an involved explanation (= a complicated explanation)

the people involved (= the same as the people concerned)

- an adopted child (= a child who is brought up by people who are not his/her biological parents)

the solution adopted (= the solution that is/was chosen)

4 much or very with past participles

When a past participle is part of a passive verb, we can put much or very much before it, but not very.

He's (very) much admired by his students. (NOT ... very admired ... )

Britain's trade position has been (very) much weakened by inflation. (NOT ... very weakened ... )

When a past participle is used as an adjective, we usually prefer very. This is common with words referring to mental states, feelings and reactions.

a very frightened animal (NOT a much frightened animal)

a very shocked expression

The children were very bored.

She looked very surprised.

Common exceptions:

That's Alice, unless I'm (very) much mistaken. (NOT ... unless I'm very mistaken.)

He's well known in the art world. (NOT ... very known ... )

With amused, very and (very) much are both possible.

I was very amused / much amused / very much amused by Miranda's performance.

5 frightened by / frightened of

By is used after passive verbs to introduce the agent (the person or thing that does the action - see 413).

Most of the damage was caused by your sister.

After past participles that are used like adjectives, we prefer other prepositions. Compare:

- She was frightened by a mouse that ran into the room. (Frightened is part of a passive verb referring to an action.)

She's always been terribly frightened of dying. (Frightened is an adjective referring to a state of mind.)

- The kids were so excited by the music that they kept screaming.

Joe's excited about the possibility of going to the States.

- I was annoyed by the way she spoke to me.

I'm annoyed with you.

- The burglar was surprised by the family coming home unexpectedly.

I'm surprised at/by your attitude.

- He was badly shocked by his fall.

We were shocked at/by the prices in London.

Other examples:

His whereabouts are known to the police.

The hills are covered in snow.

The room was filled with thick smoke.

6 special past participle forms

A few older forms of past participles are still used as adjectives before nouns in certain expressions.

drunken laughter/singing etc   a sunken wreck/ship etc

a shrunken head   rotten fruit/vegetables etc

411 participles (4): clauses

1 structures

Participles can combine with other words into participle clauses.

There's a woman crying her eyes out over there.

Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.

Not knowing what to do, I telephoned the police.

Served with milk and sugar, it makes a delicious breakfast.

2 after nouns: the people invited to the party

Participle clauses can be used after nouns and pronouns.

We can offer you a job cleaning cars.

There's Neville, eating as usual.

In came the first runner, closely followed by the second.

I found him sitting at a table covered with papers.

Participle clauses are often very like relative clauses (see 494.5), except that they have participles instead of complete verbs.

Who's the girl dancing with your brother? (= ... the girl who is dancing )

Anyone touching that wire will get a shock. (= Anyone who touches )

Half of the people invited to the party didn't turn up. (= ... who were invited ... )

Perfect participles are not often used in this way.

Do you know anybody who's lost a cat? (NOT Do you know anybody having lost a cat?)

3 adverbial clauses: Putting down my paper, I ...

Participle clauses can also be used in similar ways to full adverbial clauses, expressing condition, reason, time relations, result etc. (This can only happen, of course, when the idea of condition, reason etc is so clear that no conjunction is needed to signal it.) Adverbial participle clauses are usually rather formal.

Used economically, one tin will last for six weeks. (= If it is used ... )

Having failed my medical exams, I took up teaching. (= As I had failed ... )

Putting down my newspaper, I walked over to the window. (= After I had put down my newspaper, ... )

It rained for two weeks on end, completely ruining our holiday. (= ... so that it completely ruined our holiday.)

Note that -ing clauses can be made with verbs like be, have, wish and know, which are not normally used in progressive tenses (see 471). In these cases, the participle clause usually expresses reason or cause.

Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some money.

Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress designer.

Knowing her pretty well, I realised something was wrong.

4 subjects; misrelated participles

Normally the subject of an adverbial participle clause is the same as the

subject of the main clause in a sentence.

My wife had a talk with Sally, explaining the problem. (My wife is the subject of explaining.)

It is often considered incorrect to make sentences with 'misrelated participles', where an adverb clause has a different subject from the main clause.

Looking out of the window of our hotel room, there was a wonderful range of mountains. (This could sound as if the mountains were looking out of the window.)

However, sentences like these are common and often seem quite natural, particularly when the main clause has preparatory it or there as a subject.

Being French, it's surprising that she's such a terrible cook.

Having so little time, there was not much that I could do.

'Misrelated participles' are normal in some fixed expressions referring to the speaker's attitude. Examples:

Generally speaking, men can run faster than women.

Broadly speaking, dogs are more faithful than cats.

Judging from his expression, he's in a bad mood.

Considering everything, it wasn't a bad holiday.

Supposing there was a war, what would you do?

Taking everything into consideration, they ought to get another chance.

5 participle clauses with their own subjects

A participle clause can have its own subject. This happens most often in a rather formal style.

Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.

All the money having been spent, we started looking for work.

A little girl walked past, her doll dragging behind her on the pavement.

Hands held high, the dancers circle to the right.

The subject is often introduced by with when the clause expresses accompanying circumstances.

A car roared past with smoke pouring from the exhaust.

With Peter working in Birmingham, and Lucy travelling most of the week, the house seems pretty empty.

6 participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions

-ing clauses can be used after many conjunctions and prepositions. They are common with after, before, since, when, while, on, without, instead of, in spite of and as. Note that -ing forms after prepositions can often be considered as either participles or gerunds - the dividing line is not clear (see 293).

After talking to you I always feel better.

After having annoyed everybody he went home.

Depress clutch before changing gear.

She's been quite different since coming back from America.

When telephoning from abroad, dial 1865, not 01865.

On being introduced, British people often shake hands.

They left without saying goodbye.

She struck me as being a very nervy kind of person.

Clauses with past participles are possible (mostly in a formal style) after if, when, while, once and until.

If asked to look after luggage for someone else, inform police at once.

When opened, keep in refrigerator.

Once deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.

Leave in oven until cooked to a light brown colour.

For clauses like when ready, see 73.4.

7 object complements

The structure object + participle (clause) is used after verbs of sensation (e.g. see, hear, feel, watch, notice, smell) and some other verbs (e.g. find, get, have, make).

I saw a small girl standing in the goldfish pond.

Have you ever heard a nightingale singing?

I found her drinking my whisky.

We'll have to get the car repaired before Tuesday.

Do you think you can get the radio working?

We'll soon have you walking again.

I can make myself understood pretty well in English.

For more about structures with see and hear, see 242. For get, see 224. For have, see 238. For make, see 335.

412 passives (1): passive structures and verb forms

1 active and passive structures

Compare:

- They built this house in 1486. (active)

This house was built in 1486. (passive)

- Austrians speak German. (active)

German is spoken in Austria. (passive)

- A friend of ours is repairing the roof (active)

The roof is being repaired by a friend of ours. (passive)

- This book will change your life. (active)

Your life will be changed by this book. (passive)

When A does something to B, there are often two ways to talk about it. If we want A (the doer) to be the subject, we use an active verb: built, speak, is repairing. If we want B (the 'receiver' of the action) to be the subject, we use: was built, is spoken, is being repaired, will be changed.

The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.

                                   OBJECT

Active: They built  this house  in 1486.

Passive:  This house  was built in 1486.

                  SUBJECT

In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not expressed in the corresponding passive sentence. If it does have to be expressed, this usually happens in an expression with by; the noun is called the 'agent' (see 413).

This house was built in 1486 by Sir John Latton.

2 passive verb forms

We normally make passive forms of a verb by using tenses of the auxiliary be followed by the past participle (= pp) of the verb. (For get as a passive auxiliary, see 223.5.) Here is a list of all the passive forms of an ordinary English verb.

Name | Construction | Example
(simple) future | will be + pp | You'll be told soon enough.
future perfect | will have been + pp | Everything will have been done by Tuesday
simple present | am/are/is + pp | English is spoken here.
present progressive | am/are/is being + pp | Excuse the mess; the house is being painted.
present perfect | have/has been + pp | Has Mary been told?
simple past | was/were + pp | I wasn't invited, but I went.
past progressive | was/were being + pp | I felt as if I was being watched.
past perfect | had been + pp | I knew why I had been chosen.

Future progressive passives (will be being + pp) and perfect progressive passives (has been being + pp) are unusual.

Examples of passive infinitives: (to) be taken; (to) have been invited.

Examples of passive -ing forms: being watched; having been invited.

Note that verbs made up of more than one word (see 599-600) can have passive forms if they are transitive.

The furniture was broken up for firewood.

She likes being looked at. 

I need to be taken care of.

He hates being made a fool of.

For more about structures with prepositions at the ends of clauses, see 452.

3 use of tenses

Passive tenses are normally used in the same way as active tenses. So for example the present progressive passive is used, like the present progressive active, to talk about things that are going on at the time of speaking (see 464).

The papers are being prepared now.

The secretary is preparing the papers now.

And the present perfect passive can be used, like the present perfect active, to talk about finished actions with present consequences (see 455).

Alex has been arrested! The police have arrested Alex!

4 verbs not used in the passive

Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structures are impossible with intransitive verbs (see 606.2) like die or arrive, which cannot have objects, because there is nothing to become the subject of a passive sentence. Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these are 'stative verbs' (verbs which refer to states, not actions). Examples are fit, have, lack, resemble, suit.

They have a nice house. (BUT NOT A nice house is had by them.)

My shoes don't fit me. (BUT NOT I'm not fitted by my shoes.)

Sylvia resembles a Greek goddess. (BUT NOT A Greek goddess is resembled by Sylvia.)

Your mother lacks tact. (BUT NOT Tact is lacked ... )

She was having a bath. (BUT NOT A bath was being had by her.)

5 confusing forms

Students often confuse active and passive verb forms in English. Typical mistakes:

I was very interesting in the lesson.

We were questioning by the immigration officer.

She has put in prison for life.

Mistakes like these are not surprising, because:

1. Be is used to make both passive verb forms and active progressive tenses.

2. Past participles are used to make both passive verb forms and active perfect tenses. Compare:

He was calling. (active - past progressive)

He was called. (passive - simple past)

He has called. (active - present perfect)

For active verb forms, see 10.

413 passives (2): agent

In a passive clause, we usually use by to introduce the agent - the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens. (Note, however, that agents are mentioned in only about 20 per cent of passive clauses.)

All the trouble was caused by your mother.

These carpets are made by children who work twelve hours a day.

Some past participles can be more like adjectives than verbs (see 410): for example shocked, worried, frightened. After these, we often use other prepositions instead of by.

I was shocked at/by your attitude.

We were worried about/by her silence.

Are you frightened of spiders?

With is used when we talk about an instrument which is used by an agent to do an action (see 119).

He was shot (by the policeman) with a rifle.

414 passives (3): When do we use passive structures?

1 interest in the action

We often choose passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not so interested in saying who or what does/did it. Passives without 'agents' (see 413) are common in academic and scientific writing for this reason.

Those pyramids were built around 400 AD.

Too many books have been written about the Second World War.

The results have not yet been analysed.

2 putting the news at the end

We often prefer to begin a sentence with something that is already known, or that we are already talking about, and to put the 'news' at the end. This is another common reason for choosing passive structures. Compare:

John's painting my portrait. (active verb so that the 'news' - the portrait - can go at the end)

Nice picture. ~ Yes, it was painted by my grandmother. (passive verb so that the 'news' - the painter - can go at the end)

3 keeping the same subject

In order to keep talking about the same person or thing, it may be necessary to switch from active to passive and back.

He waited for two hours; then he was seen by a doctor; then he was sent back to the waiting room. He sat there for another two hours - by this time he was getting angry. Then he was taken upstairs and examined by a specialist, after which he had to wait for another hour before he was allowed to go home. (More natural than He waited for two hours; then a doctor saw him ... )

4 putting heavier expressions at the end

Longer and heavier expressions often go at the end of a clause, and this can also be a reason for choosing a passive structure.

I was annoyed by Mary wanting to tell everybody what to do. (More natural than Mary wanting to tell everybody what to do annoyed me - the phrase Mary ... do would make a very long subject.)

5 meaning and grammar

Meaning and grammar do not always go together. Not all active verbs have 'active' meanings; for instance, if you say that somebody receives something or suffers, you are really saying that something is done to him/her. Some English active verbs might be translated by passive or reflexive verbs in certain other languages: e.g. My shoes are wearing out; She is sitting; Suddenly the door opened. And some English passives might be translated by active or reflexive verbs: e.g. I was born in 1956; English is spoken here.

Some verbs can be used in both active and passive forms with similar meanings: for example to worry / to be worried; to drown / to be drowned (see 165). Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very similar meanings: for example There's a lot of work to do / to be done (for details, see 287).

For more about verbs like open, see 609.

For more about reflexive verbs, see 493.

For active and passive past participles, see 409.

For -ing forms with passive meanings after need and want (e.g. My watch needs cleaning), see 296.3.

For more about the way information is organised in sentences, see 512.

415 passives (4): verbs with two objects

Many verbs, such as give, send, show, lend, pay, promise, refuse, tell, offer, can be followed by two objects, an 'indirect object' and a 'direct object'. These usually refer to a person (indirect object) and a thing (direct object). Two structures are possible.

A. verb + indirect object + direct object

She gave her sister the car.

I had already shown the policewoman Sam's photo.

B. verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object

She gave the car to her sister.

I had already shown Sam's photo to the policewoman.

Both of these structures can be made passive.

A. indirect object becomes subject of passive verb

Her sister was given the car.

The policewoman had already been shown Sam's photo.

B. direct object becomes subject of passive verb

The car was given to her sister.

Sam's photo had already been shown to the policewoman.

The choice between the two passive structures may depend on what has been said before, or on what needs to be put last in the sentence (see 414.2,4). Structure A (e.g. Her sister was given the car) is the more common of the two.

More examples:

I've just been sent a whole lot of information.

You were lent ten thousand pounds last year.

The visitors were shown a collection of old manuscripts.

They are being paid a lot of money for doing very little.

He was refused a visa because he had been in prison.

We will never be told the real truth.

How much have you been offered?

In structure B (e.g. The car was given to her sister), prepositions are sometimes dropped before indirect object pronouns.

This watch was given (to) me by my father.

Explain (see 198) and suggest (see 570) cannot be used in structure A.

The problem was explained to the children. (BUT NOT The children were explained the problem.)

A meeting place was suggested to us. (BUT NOT We were suggested a meeting place.)

For more details of verbs with two objects, see 610.

For more about prepositional verbs in the passive, see 416.

416 passives (5): verbs with prepositions

1 look at, listen to, pay for etc

The objects of prepositional verbs can become subjects in passive structures.

We have looked at the plan carefully. → The plan has been carefully looked at.

Nobody listens to her. → She is never listened to.

Somebody has paid for your meal. → Your meal has been paid for.

Note the word order. The preposition cannot be dropped.

I don't like to be shouted at. (NOT I don't like to be shouted.)

For more about prepositions at the ends of clauses, see 452.

2 throw stones at, steal a bicycle from, give flowers to etc

If there is already a direct object, the second object (after the preposition) cannot become a passive subject.

They threw stones at him. → Stones were thrown at him. (BUT NOT He was thrown stones at.)

They stole a bicycle from him. → A bicycle was stolen from him. (BUT NOT He was stolen a bicycle from.)

They poured water on us. → Water was poured on us. (BUT NOT We were poured water on.)

Note that possessive nouns or pronouns cannot become passive subjects, either.

They called Mr Archer's name. → Mr Archer's name was called. (BUT NOT Mr Archer was name called.)

I broke her mirror. → Her mirror was broken. (BUT NOT She was mirror broken.)

3 give, send etc

Verbs like give, send, lend can have two objects with no preposition (e.g. They gave him a gold watch). For the passive of this structure (e.g. He was given a gold watch), see 415.

For structures with have + object + past participle (e.g. We had water poured on us), see 238, 512.3.

417 passives (6): it was thought that ...

1 clause objects: Nobody thought that she was a spy

Some sentences have clauses as their objects. These cannot normally become the subjects of passive sentences.

Nobody thought that she was a spy. (BUT NOT That she was a spy was thought by nobody.)

We felt that he was the right man for the job. (BUT NOT That he was ... was felt.)

The newspapers say that his company is in trouble. (BUT NOT That his company is in trouble is said ... )

However, passive structures are often possible with preparatory it (see 446).

It was thought that she was a spy.

It was felt that he was the right man for the job.

It is said that his company is in trouble.

2 infinitive objects: They decided to ...

A few verbs that are followed by infinitives (for example decide, agree) can also be used in passive structures beginning with it.

They decided to meet at twelve. → It was decided to meet at twelve.

We agreed to open a new branch. → It was agreed to open a new branch.

However, most verbs cannot be used in this way.

We hope to make a profit this year. (BUT NOT It is hoped to make ... )

418 passives (7): He is believed to be

1 object + infinitive: He asked me to send ...

Many verbs can be followed by object + infinitive (see 283).

He asked me to send a stamped addressed envelope.

We chose Felicity to be the Carnival Queen.

In most cases, these structures can be made passive.

I was asked to send a stamped addressed envelope.

Felicity was chosen to be the Carnival Queen.

We were told not to come back.

They are allowed to visit Harry once a week.

2 verbs of thinking, feeling and saying

With verbs like think, feel, believe, know etc, the object + infinitive structure is rather formal and often unusual.

They believe him to be dangerous. (more normal: They believe that ... )

However, the passive structure (e.g. He is believed to be ... ) is common, and often occurs in news reports.

He is believed to be dangerous.

Moriarty is thought to be in Switzerland.

She is known to have been married before.

It is considered to be the finest cathedral in Scotland.

Note that with say, the infinitive structure is only possible in the passive.

His company is said to be in trouble. (BUT NOT They say his company to be in trouble.)

3 hear, see, make and help

These verbs can be followed, in active structures, by object + infinitive without to (see 281). In passive structures to-infinitives are used. Compare:

- I saw him come out of the house.

He was seen to come out of the house.

- They made him tell them everything.

He was made to tell them everything.

- They helped him (to) get out of the country.

He was helped to get out of the country.

4 preparatory there

With some verbs (e.g. say, think, feel, report, presume, understand), the passive structure is possible with there as a 'preparatory subject'.

There are thought to be more than 3,000 different languages in the world. (= It is thought that there are ... )

There was said to be disagreement between Ministers.

5 perfect, progressive and passive infinitives

A passive verb can be followed by a perfect, progressive or passive infinitive.

He is believed to have crossed the frontier last night.

I was told to be waiting outside the station at 6 o'clock.

The hostages are expected to be released today.

6 exceptions: wanting and liking

Verbs that refer to wanting, liking and similar ideas cannot usually be used in passive structures with following infinitives.

Everybody wanted Doris to be the manager. (BUT NOT Doris was wanted to be the manager.)

We like our staff to say what they think. (BUT NOT Our staff are liked to say what they think.)

419 passives (8): he was considered a genius

After some verbs the direct object can be followed by an 'object complement' - a noun or adjective which describes or classifies the object.

Queen Victoria considered him a genius.

They elected Mrs Sanderson President.

We all regarded Kathy as an expert.

Most people saw him as a sort of clown.

The other children called her stupid.

You've made the house beautiful.

In passive clauses these are subject complements; they come after the verb.

He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria.

Mrs Sanderson was elected President.

Kathy was regarded as an expert.

He was seen as a sort of clown.

She was called stupid by the other children.

The house has been made beautiful.

For more about object complements, see 607.

420 passives (9): My suitcase is packed

Some verbs refer to actions that produce a finished result. Examples are cut, build, pack, close. Other verbs do not: for example push, live, speak, hit, carry. The past participles of finished-result verbs, and some of their passive tenses, can have two meanings. They can refer to the action, or they can describe the result (rather like adjectives). Compare:

The theatre was closed by the police on the orders of the mayor. (refers to the action of closing)

When I got there I found that the theatre was closed. (refers to the state of being shut - the result of the action)

Because of this, for example, present passive forms can have similar meanings to present perfect passives.

The vegetables are all cut up - what shall I do now? (= The vegetables have all been cut up ... )

I got caught in the rain and my suit's ruined. (= ... has been ruined.)

I think your ankle is broken. (= ... has been broken.)

My suitcase is packed. (= ... has been packed.)

421 past (1): simple past (I worked etc)

This form is also called 'past simple'.

1 forms (regular verbs)

Affirmative | Question | Negative
I worked | did I work? | I did not work
you worked | did you work? | you did not work
he/she/it worked | did he/she/it work? | he/she/it did not work
etc | etc | etc

- Contracted negatives (see 143): I didn't work, you didn't work etc.

- Negative questions (see 368): did I not work? or didn't I work? etc.

- For the affirmative past forms of common irregular verbs, see 304.

- Questions and negatives of irregular verbs are made in the same way as those of regular verbs (with did + infinitive).

For details of question structures, see 480-486. For negatives, see 367-371.

For passive forms (e.g. Work was done), see 412.

2 pronunciation of -ed

The regular past ending -ed is pronounced as follows:

• /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/):

/ð/, /b/, /v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/

tried /traɪd/   lived /lɪvd/   used /ju:zd/   failed /feɪld/

• /t/ after unvoiced consonants (except /t/):

/θ/, /p/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /k/

stopped stɒpt/   passed /pɑ:st/   laughed /lɑ:ft/

watched /wɒtʃt/   worked /wɜ:kt/

• /ɪd/ after /d/ and /t/

ended /'endɪd/   started /'stɑ:tɪd/

For adjectives like aged, naked, see 18.

3 spelling of regular affirmative past tense forms

Most regular verbs:
add -ed
work → worked
stay → stayed
show → showed
wonder → wondered
visit → visited
gallop → galloped

Verbs ending in -e:
add -d
hope → hoped
decide → decided

Verbs ending in one stressed vowel
+ one consonant (except w or y):
double the consonant and add -ed

But (last syllable not stressed):
shop → shopped
plan → planned
re'fer → referred
re'gret → regretted
'offer → offered
'visit → visited

Verbs ending in consonant + -y:
change y to i and add -ed

But (vowel + -y):
hurry → hurried
cry → cried
study → studied
play → played

Verbs ending in -c have ck in the past (e.g. picnic → picnicked).

In British English, -l is doubled in the past after one short vowel even if the vowel is not stressed: 'travel → travelled.

4 use

We use the simple past for many kinds of past events: short, quickly finished actions and happenings, longer situations, and repeated events.

Peter broke a window last night.

I spent all my childhood in Scotland.

Regularly every summer, Janet fell in love.

The simple past is common in stories and descriptions of past events.

One day the Princess decided that she didn't like staying at home all day, so she told her father that she wanted to get a job ...

The simple past is often used with words referring to finished times.

I saw John yesterday morning. He told me ...

In general, the simple past tense is the 'normal' one for talking about the past; we use it if we do not have a special reason for using one of the other tenses.

For the simple past with a present or future meaning (e.g. It's time you went), see 426.

For special uses in subordinate clauses, see 580.

422 past (2): past progressive (I was working etc)

1 forms

 was/were + -ing

I was working.

Were you listening to me? She was not trying.

For details of question structures, see 480-486. For negatives, see 367-371.

For passive forms (e.g. Work was being done), see 412.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

2 use: What were you doing at eight o'clock?

We use the past progressive to say that something was in progress (going on) around a particular past time.

What were you doing at eight o'clock yesterday evening? ~ I was watching TV (NOT What did you do ... ? - I watched TV.

When I got up this morning the sun was shining, the birds were singing, ... (NOT ... the sun shone, the birds sang ...)

3 past progressive and simple past: 'background' events

We often use the past progressive together with a simple past tense. The past progressive refers to a longer 'background' action or situation; the simple past refers to a shorter action or event that happened in the middle of the longer action, or that interrupted it.

As I was walking down the road, I saw Bill.

The phone rang while I was having dinner.

Mozart died while he was composing the Requiem

4 not used for repeated actions

The past progressive is not the normal tense for talking about repeated or habitual past actions. The simple past is usually used with this meaning.

I rang the bell six times. (NOT I was ringing the bell six times.)

When I was a child we made our own amusements. (NOT ... we were making our own amusements.)

However, the past progressive is possible if the repeated actions form a 'background' for the main action.

At the time when it happened, I was travelling to New York a lot.

5 non-progressive verbs: She said she believed

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471).

She said she believed Joe was dying. (NOT She said she was believing ... )

6 used for shorter, temporary actions and situations

The past progressive, like other progressive forms (see 470), is used for temporary actions and situations. When we talk about longer, more permanent situations we use the simple past. Compare:

- It happened while I was living in Eastbourne last year. .

I lived in London for ten years while I was a child.

- When I got home, water was running down the kitchen walls.

When they first discovered the river, they thought it ran into the Atlantic.

7 special uses

Because we often use the past progressive to talk about something that is a 'background', not the main 'news', we can make something seem less important by using this tense. Compare:

I had lunch with the President yesterday. (important piece of news)

I was having lunch with the President yesterday, and she said ... (as if there was nothing special for the speaker about lunching with the President)

The past progressive is quite often used with verbs of saying: this gives more relative importance to the following verb - to what is said.

John was saying that he still can't find a job.

With always, continually and similar words, the past progressive can be used for things that happened repeatedly and unexpectedly or in an unplanned way (see 472).

Aunt Lucy was always turning up without warning and bringing us presents.

I didn't like him - he was continually borrowing money.

For the 'distancing' use of past progressives (e.g. I was wondering whether you'd like to come out with me this evening), see 436.

423 past perfect (1): basic information

This entry deals with the simple past perfect. For the past perfect progressive, see 425.

1 forms

 had + past participle

I had forgotten.

Where had she been? It hadn't rained for weeks.

For passives (e.g. The work had been done), see 412.

2 meaning and use: earlier past

The basic meaning of the past perfect is 'earlier past'. A common use is to 'go back' for a moment when we are already talking about the past, to make it clear that something had already happened at the time we are talking about.

During our conversation, I realised that we had met before. (NOT I realised that we met before OR ... have met before.)

When I arrived at the party, Lucy had already gone home. (NOT ... Lucy already went home OR ... has already gone home.)

The past perfect is common after past verbs of saying and thinking, to talk about things that had happened before the saying or thinking took place.

I told her that I had finished. (NOT ... that I (have) finished.)

I wondered who had left the door open.

I thought I had sent the cheque a week before.

3 past perfect not used

The past perfect is normally only used as described above. The past perfect is not used simply to say that something happened some time ago, or to give a past reason for a present situation.

Alex Cary, who worked for my father in the 1980s, is now living in Greece. (NOT Alex Cary, who had worked far my father ... )

I left some photos to be developed. Are they ready yet? (NOT I had left some photos ... )

4 unreal events: if etc

After if (see 259), wish (see 630) and would rather (see 491), the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that did not happen.

If I had gone to university I would have studied medicine.

I wish you had told me the truth.

I'd rather she had asked me before borrowing the car.

5 how long? past perfect, not simple past.

We use a past perfect, not a simple past, to say how long something had continued up to a past moment. A simple past perfect is used with 'nonprogressive verbs' like be, have and know.

She told me that her father had been ill since Christmas. (NOT ... that her father was ill since Christmas.)

I was sorry to sell my car. I had had it since College. (NOT ... I had it since College.)

When they got married, they had known each other for 15 years. (NOT ... they knew each other for 15 years.)

With most other verbs, we use the past perfect progressive for this meaning (see 425).

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

424 past perfect (2): advanced points

1 past perfect or simple past with after, as soon as, etc

We can use time conjunctions (e.g. after, as soon as, when, once) to talk about two actions or events that happened one after the other. Usually the past perfect is not necessary in these cases, because we are not 'going back' from the time that we are mainly talking about, but simply moving forward from one event to the next.

After it got dark, we came back inside.

As soon as lane arrived, we sat down to eat.

Once it stopped raining, we started the game again.

However, we can use the past perfect with after, as soon as etc to emphasise that the first action is separate, independent of the second, completed before the second started.

She didn't feel the same after her dog had died.

As soon as he had finished his exams, he went to Paris for a month.

This use of the past perfect is especially common with when. (When has several meanings, so we often have to show the exact time relations by the verb form.) Compare:

- When I had opened the windows, I sat down and had a cup of tea. (NOT When I opened the windows, I sat down ... : the first action was quite separate from the second.)

When I opened the window, the cat jumped out. (More natural than When I had opened the window, ... : one action caused the other.)

- When I had written my letters, I did some gardening. (NOT When I wrote my letters, I did some gardening.)

When I wrote to her, she came at once.

2 unrealised hopes and wishes; things that did not happen

The past perfect can be used to express an unrealised hope, wish etc. Had is usually stressed in this case.

I HAD hoped we would leave tomorrow, but it won't be possible.

He HAD intended to make a cake, but he ran out of time.

3 past perfect with It was the first/second that ...

We use a past perfect after it was the first/second ... that ... and similar structures (see 591).

It was the first time that I had heard her sing. (NOT ... that I heard ... )

It was the fifth time she had asked the same question. (NOT She asked ... )

It was only the second opera I had seen in my life. (NOT I saw ... )

For the past perfect with before (e.g. He went out before I had finished my sentence), see 97.3.

425 past perfect (3): progressive

1 forms: had been + -ing

I had been working.   Where had she been staying?

They hadn't been listening.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

2 use

We use the past perfect progressive to talk about actions or situations which had continued up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it.

At that time we had been living in the caravan for about six months.

When I found Mary, I could see that she had been crying.

I went to the doctor because I had been sleeping badly.

3 how long? past perfect progressive, not past progressive

We use a past perfect progressive, not a past progressive, to say how long something had been happening up to a past moment.

We'd been walking since sunrise, and we were hungry. (NOT We were walking since sunrise ... )

When she arrived, she had been travelling for twenty hours. (NOT ... she was travelling ... )

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

4 progressive and simple: differences

Progressive forms are mostly used to talk about more temporary actions and situations. When we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we prefer simple forms. Compare:

My legs were stiff because I had been standing still for a long time.

The tree that blew down had stood there for 300 years.

Progressive forms generally emphasise the continuation of an activity; we use simple tenses to emphasise the idea of completion. Compare:

I had been reading science fiction, and my mind was full of strange images.

I had read all my magazines, and was beginning to get bored.

Some verbs are not normally used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning is one for which a progressive form would be more suitable.

I hadn't known her for very long when we got married. (NOT I hadn't been knowing her ... )

426 past verb form with present or future meaning

A past tense does not always have a past meaning. In some kinds of sentence we can use verbs like I had, you went or I was wondering to talk about the present or future.

1 after conjunctions, instead of would

In most subordinate clauses (e.g. after if, supposing, wherever, what), we use past tenses (and not would ... ) to express 'unreal' or conditional ideas (see 580.6).

If I had the money now I'd buy a car.

If you caught the ten o'clock train tomorrow you would be in Edinburgh by supper-time, unless the train was delayed, of course.

You look as if you were just about to scream.

Supposing we didn't go on holiday next year?

Would you follow me wherever I went?

In a perfect world, you would be able to say exactly what you thought.

Ten o'clock - it's time (that) you went home.

Don't come and see me today - I'd rather (that) you came tomorrow.

I wish (that) I had a better memory.

2 distancing in questions, requests etc

We can make questions, requests and offers less direct (and so more polite) by using past tenses. (For more about 'distancing' of this kind, see 436.) Common formulae are I wondered, I thought, I hoped, did you want.

I wondered if you were free this evening.

I thought you might like some flowers.

Did you want cream with your coffee, sir?

Past progressive forms (I was thinking/ wondering/ hoping etc) make sentences even less direct.

I was thinking about that idea of yours.

I was hoping we could have dinner together.

3 'past' modals

The 'past' modal forms could, might, would and should usually have present or future reference; they are used as less direct, 'distanced' forms of can, may, will and shall.

Could you help me for a moment?   Would you come this way, please?

I think it might rain soon.   Alice should be here soon.

4 past focus on continuing situations

If we are talking about the past, we usually use past tenses even for things which are still true and situations which still exist.

Are you deaf? I asked how old you were.

I'm sorry we left Liverpool. It was such a nice place.

Do you remember that nice couple we met on holiday? They were German, weren't they?

I got this job because I was a good driver.

Bill applied to join the police last week, but he wasn't tall enough.

For more indirect speech examples, see 275, 278.

427 perfect verb forms

1 construction

Perfect verb forms are made with have + past participle.

She has lost her memory. (present perfect)

They have been living in France for the last year. (present perfect progressive)

I told him that I had never heard of the place. (past perfect)

When I went back to the village the house had been pulled down. (past perfect passive)

We will have finished by tomorrow afternoon. (future perfect tense)

I'm sorry to have disturbed you. (perfect infinitive)

Having seen the film, I don't want to read the book. (perfect -ing form)

2 terminology and use

A perfect verb form generally shows the time of an event as being earlier than some other time (past, present or future). But a perfect form does not only show the time of an event. It also shows how the speaker sees the event - perhaps as being connected to a later event, or as being completed by a certain time. Because of this, grammars often talk about 'perfect aspect' rather than 'perfect tenses'.

For details of the use of the various perfect verb forms, see the individual entries in the book.

428 personal pronouns (1): basic information

1 terminology and use

The words I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they and them are usually called 'personal pronouns'. (This is a misleading name: it, they and them refer to things as well as people.)

Personal pronouns are used when more exact noun phrases are not necessary.

I'm tired. (I replaces the name of any speaker.)

John's ill. He'll be away for a few days. (NOT ... John'll be away ... )

Tell Mary I miss her. (NOT Tell Mary I miss Mary.)

2 subject and object forms: I and me, he and him etc

Personal pronouns (except you) have one form when they are used as subjects, and a different form for other uses - for example, when they are the objects of verbs or prepositions.

Subject: | I | he | she | we | they
Object: | me | him | her | us | them

Compare:

- I like dogs.    - We sent her some flowers.

Dogs don't like me.    She sent us some flowers.

3 other uses of object forms: It was her

Me, him, her, us and them are used not only as objects, but also as complements after be, and in short answers, especially in an informal style.

Who said that? ~ (It was) her.

Who's there? ~ Me.

In a more formal style, we use subject form + verb where possible.

Who said that? ~ She did. (BUT NOT She)

It is possible to use a subject form alone after be (e.g. It is I; It was he), but this is extremely formal, and is usually considered over-correct.

Object forms are also common in double subjects in informal speech.

John and me are going skiing this weekend.

This is considered incorrect in more formal usage (see 429.1).

For sentences like It's me that needs help, see 429.3.

4 Personal pronouns cannot be left out

We cannot normally leave out personal pronouns, even if the meaning is clear without them (for some exceptions, see 429.11).

It's raining. (NOT Is raining.)

She loved the picture because it reminded her of home. (NOT ... because reminded her of home.)

They arrested Alex and put him in prison. (NOT and put in prison.)

Have some chocolate. -s No, I don't like it. (NOT I don't like.)

5 One subject is enough

One subject is enough. We do not usually use a personal pronoun to repeat a subject that comes in the same clause.

My car is parked outside. (NOT My car it is parked outside.)

The boss really gets on my nerves. (NOT The boss he really gets on my nerves.)

The situation is terrible. (NOT It is terrible the situation.)

There are exceptions in very informal speech (see 514).

He's not a bad bloke, Jeff.

It's a horrible place, London.

For it as a preparatory subject or object, see 446-447.

6 personal and relative pronouns: she or who, not both

We do not use personal pronouns to repeat the meaning of relative pronouns (see 494.7).

That's the girl who lives in the flat upstairs. (NOT ... who she lives ... )

Here's the money (that) you lent me. (NOT ... (that) you lent me it.)

7 it referring to nothing, the situation, etc.

It not only refers to the names of particular things. We can also use it to refer to indefinite pronouns like nothing, anything, everything.

Nothing happened, did it?

Everything's all right, isn't it?

It can also refer to a whole fact, event or situation.

Our passports were stolen. It completely ruined our holiday.

I did all I could, but it wasn't enough.

It's terrible - everybody's got colds, and the central heating isn't working.

Wasn't it lovely there!

8 it as 'empty' subject: it's ten o'clock

We use it as a meaningless subject with expressions that refer to time, weather, temperature or distances.

It's ten o'clock. (NOT Is ten o'clock.)   It's Monday again.

It rained for three days.   It's thirty degrees.

It's ten miles to the nearest petrol station.

9 it used to identify

We use it for a person when we are identifying him or her.

Who's that over there? ~ It's John Cook. (NOT He's John Cook.)

Is that our waiter? ~ No, it isn't. (NOT No, he isn't.)

On the phone: Hello. It's Alan Williams. (NOT ... I'm Alan Williams.)

It's your sister who plays the piano, isn't it?

10 we women, you men

We and plural you (but not other personal pronouns) can be put directly

before nouns.

We women know things that you men will never understand. (BUT NOT I woman know ... OR They men will never ... )

For you used for people in general, see 396.

For the personal pronoun one, see 396.

For the use of he and she to refer to animals, ships etc, see 222.

For they, them, their with singular reference, see 528.

For the interrogative personal pronoun who(m), see 623.

429 personal pronouns (2): advanced points

1 John and me went; us women understand; between you and I

We often use object forms in double subjects in informal speech.

John and me are going skiing this weekend.

Me and the kids spent Sunday at the swimming pool.

Us is sometimes used as a subject together with a noun.

Us women understand these things better than you men.

And I is often used informally in double objects.

Between you and I, I think his marriage is in trouble.

That's a matter for Peter and I.

I often think of the old days and how you helped Bertie and I. (letter from Queen Elizabeth, wife of the future King George VI, to King Edward VIII).

These structures are often condemned as 'incorrect', but they have been common in educated speech for centuries. (There are examples of me in double subjects in lane Austen's novels, written around 1800.) They are, however, restricted to a very informal style. They are not correct in formal speech or writing.

2 as, than, but and except + me or I

After as and than, object forms are generally used in an informal style.

My sister's nearly as tall as me.

I can run faster than her.

In a more formal style, subject forms are used, usually followed by verbs.

My sister's nearly as tall as I am.

I can run faster than she can.

But (meaning 'except') and except are followed by object forms (see 116, 194).

Nobody but me knew the answer. (NOT Nobody but I ... )

Everybody except him can come.

3 It is/was me that ... / I who ...

When a relative clause comes after an expression like It is/was me/I, there are two possibilities:

 object form + that (very informal)

It's me that needs your help.

It was him that told the police.

 subject form + who (very formal)

It is I who need your help.

It was he who told the police.

We can avoid being too formal or too informal by using a different structure.

He was the person / the one who told the police.

4 mixed subject and object: It's for him to decide

Sometimes a pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition, but the subject of a following infinitive or clause. Normally an object form is used in this case.

It's for him to decide. (NOT It's for he to decide.)

I think it's a good idea for you and me to meet soon. (Considered more correct than ... for you and I to meet soon.)

Everything comes to him who waits. (Considered more correct than ... to he who waits.)

5 inclusive and exclusive we

Note that we and us can include or exclude the listener or reader. Compare:

Shall we go and have a drink? (We includes the listener.)

We're going for a drink. Would you like to come with us? (We and us exclude the listener.)

6 us meaning 'me'

In very informal British speech, us is quite often used instead of me (especially as an indirect object).

Give us a kiss, love.

7 Poor you!

You can be modified by adjectives in a few informal expressions such as Poor/ Clever/Lucky (old) you! (This occasionally happens also with me.)

8 you: different singular and plural forms

Although standard modern English uses you for both singular and plural, separate forms exist in certain varieties of English. Some speakers in Yorkshire use thu or tha as a singular subject form and thee as a singular object form. Some Irish and Scottish dialects have a separate plural form ye, youse or yiz. Many Americans (and increasingly, British people) use you folks or you guys (to both men and women) as an informal second-person plural.

Hi, you guys. Listen to this.

In southern US speech there is a second-person plural form you all (pronounced y'all), used instead of you when people wish to sound friendly or intimate; there is also a possessive you all's (pronounced y'all's).

Hi, everybody. How're you all doing? What are you all's plans for Thanksgiving?

For the older English forms thee and thou, see 392.

9 he/she who ...

The structure he/ she who ... (meaning 'the person who .. .') is found in older literature.

He who hesitates is sometimes lost.

But this is very unusual in modern English.

The person who leaves last should lock the door. OR Whoever leaves last ... (NOT He/She who leaves last ... )

10 politeness

It is considered polite to use names or noun phrases, rather than he, she or they, to refer to people who are present.

Dad said I could go out. -i No, I didn't. (More polite than He said I could go out.)

This lady needs an ambulance.

However, pronouns need to be used to avoid repetition (see 500).

Dad said he didn't mind ... (NOT Dad said Dad didn't mind ... )

It is considered polite to mention oneself last in double subjects or objects.

Why don't you and I go away for the weekend? (NOT Why don't I and you ... ?)

The invitation was for Tracy and me. (More polite than ... for me and Tracy.)

11 leaving out personal pronouns

Personal pronouns cannot usually be left out (see 428.4).

She loved the picture because it reminded her of home. (NOT ... because reminded her of home.)

However, in informal speech, subject pronouns and/or auxiliary verbs are sometimes left out at the beginning of a sentence. For details of this, see 179.

Can't help you, I'm afraid. (= I can't ... )

Seen Paul? (= Have you seen Paul?)

We seldom put it after know. See 313 for details.

It's getting late. ~ I know. (NOT I know it.)

After certain verbs (e.g. believe, think, suppose), we use so rather than it. (For details, see 539.)

Is that the manager? ~ I believe so. (NOT ... I believe (it).)

And personal pronouns can be dropped after prepositions in descriptive structures with have and with.

All the trees have got blossom on (them).

He was carrying a box with cups in (it).

Object pronouns are not normally used in infinitive clauses if the object of the infinitive has just been mentioned (see 284.4).

She's easy to please. (NOT She's easy to please her.)

The pie looked too nice to eat. (NOT ... too nice to eat it.)

The bridge wasn't strong enough to drive over. (NOT ... to drive over it.)

This dish takes two hours to prepare.

430 piece- and group-words

1 uncountable nouns: pieces

To talk about a limited quantity of something we can use a word for a piece or unit, together with of, before an uncountable noun. The most general words of this kind are piece and bit. Bit (informal) suggests a small quantity.

a piece/bit of cake/bread

some pieces/bits of paper/wood

a piece/bit of news/information

Other words are less general, and are used before particular nouns. Some common examples:

a bar of chocolate/soap
a blade of grass
a block of ice
a drop of water/oil/vinegar
a grain of sand/salt/rice/corn/truth
an item of information/news/clothing/furniture
a length of material
a loaf of bread
a lump of sugar/coal
a slice of bread/cake/meat
a speck of dust
a sheet of paper/metal/plastic
a stick of dynamite/chalk/celery
a strip of cloth/tape/land
a suit of clothes/armour

2 not a ... of ...

Some words for small pieces can be used in a negative structure meaning 'no ... at all'.

There's not a grain of truth in what he says.

There hasn't been a breath of air all day.

We haven't got a scrap (of food) to eat.

He came downstairs without a stitch of clothing on.

3 pairs

Pair is used for many things that normally go in twos, and with plural nouns that refer to some two-part objects (see 524.7).

a pair of shoes/socks/ear-rings

a pair of glasses/binoculars

a pair of trousers/jeans/pyjamas

a pair of scissors/pliers

4 plural nouns: collections

Special words are used before certain plural nouns to talk about groups or collections.

a bunch of flowers   a crowd of people   a flock of sheep/birds

a herd of cattle/goats   a pack of cards (AmE a deck of cards)

Set is used before many uncountable and plural nouns referring to groups which contain a fixed number of things.

a set of cutlery/napkins/dishes/tyres/sparking plugs/spanners

For a bit as a modifier before adjectives and adverbs, see 107.

For an amount, a lot, a large number etc, see 333.

For sort, type, kind etc, see 551.

431 place: a place to live, etc

In an informal style, place can often be followed directly by an infinitive or relative clause, with no preposition or relative word.

I'm looking for a place to live. (More formal: ... a place to live in or ... a place in which to live.)

There's no place to sit down.

You remember the place we had lunch? (= ... the place (that) we had lunch at? OR ... the place where we had lunch?)

We do not use a place where before an infinitive.

I'm looking for a place (where) I can wash my clothes. (NOT ... a place where to wash my clothes.)

'Go places' (informal) means 'become very successful in life'.

That boy's going to go places, believe me.

For similar structures with way, time and reason, see 498.6.

432 play and game

1 nouns

A play is a piece of dramatic literature for the theatre, radio or television.

'Julius Caesar' is one of Shakespeare's early plays.

A game is an activity like, for example, chess, football or bridge.

Chess is a very slow game. (NOT ... a very slow play.)

The uncountable noun play can be used to mean 'playing' in general.

Children learn a great deal through play.

2 verbs

People act in plays or films, and play games or musical instruments.

My daughter is acting in her school play this year.

Have you ever played rugby football?

Play can be used with the same meaning as act before the name of a character in a play or film.

I'll never forget seeing Olivier play Othello.

433 please and thank you

1 requests

We use please to make requests more polite.

Could I have some more rice, please?

Would you like some help? ~ Yes, please.

Note that please does not change an order into a request. Compare:

Stand over there. (order)

Please stand over there. (more polite order)

Could you stand over there, please? (polite request)

Please do is a rather formal answer to a request for permission.

Do you mind if I open the window? ~ Please do.

2 when please is not used

We do not use please to ask people what they have said.

I've got a bit of a headache. ~ I beg your pardon? (NOT ... Please?)

We do not use please when we give things to people.

Have you got a pen I could use? ~ Yes, here you are. (NOT ... Please.)

Please is not used as an answer to Thank you (see below).

Thanks a lot. ~ That's OK (NOT ... Please.)

3 thank you and thanks

Thanks is more informal than thank you. Common expressions:

Thank you. (NOT Thanks you.)

Thank you very much.

Thanks very much.

Thanks a lot. (BUT NOT Thank you a lot.)

Thank God it's Friday. (NOT Thanks God ... )

Indeed (see 273) can be used to strengthen very much.

Thank you very much indeed. (BUT NOT USUALLY Thank you indeed.)

Thank you for / Thanks for can be followed by an -ing form. Possessives are

unnecessary and are not used.

Thank you for coming. ~ Not at all. Thank you for having me. (NOT Thank you for your coming.)

Some people say Cheers to mean Thanks.

4 accepting and refusing

We often use Thank you / Thanks like Yes, please, to accept offers.

Would you like some potatoes? ~ Thank you. ~ How many?

To make it clear that one wishes to refuse something, it is normal to say No, thank you / No, thanks.

Another cake? ~ No, thanks. I've eaten too many already.

Yes, thanks is most often used to confirm that things are all right.

Have you got enough potatoes? ~ Yes, thanks.

5 replies to thanks

In English, there is not an automatic answer to Thank you; British people, especially, do not usually answer when they are thanked for small things. If a reply is necessary, we can say Not at all (rather formal), You're welcome, That's (quite) all right or That's OK (informal). Some people say No problem (informal). Compare:

Could you pass the salt? ~ Here you are. ~ Thanks. ~ (no answer)

Here's your coat. ~ Thanks. ~ (no answer)

Thanks so much for looking after the children. ~ That's all right. Any time. (answer necessary)

For more about the language of common social situations, see 545.

434 point of view

Point of view can mean the same as opinion.

Thank you for giving us your point of view / opinion.

But from somebody's point of view is not quite the same as in somebody's view/opinion. It usually means 'as seen from somebody's position in life' (for example as a student, a woman, a Greek or a Catholic), and is used to say how somebody is affected by what happens. Compare:

- In my opinion, war is always wrong. (= I think war ... ) (NOT From my point of view, war is always wrong.)

He wrote about the war from the point of view of the ordinary soldier.

- In my view, it's a pretty good school.

You have to judge a school from the child's point of view.

- In Professor Lucas's opinion, everybody should work a 20-hour week.

From the employers' point of view, this would cause a lot of problems.

435 politeness (1): using questions

1 requests: Could you ... ?

We usually ask people to do things for us by making yes/no questions. (This suggests that the hearer can choose whether to agree or not.)

Could you tell me the time, please? (much more polite than Please tell me the time.)

Some other typical structures used in requests:

Could you possibly tell me the way to the station? (very polite)

Would you mind switching on the TV?

Would you like to help me for a few minutes?

You couldn't lend me some money, could you? (informal)

Indirect yes/no questions are also used in polite requests.

I wonder if you could (possibly) help me for a few minutes.

2 other structures: telling people to do things

If we use other structures (for example imperatives, should, had better), we are not asking people to do things, but telling or advising them to do things. These structures can therefore seem rude if we use them in requests, especially in conversation with strangers or people we do not know well. Please makes an order or instruction a little more polite, but does not turn it into a request. The following structures can be used perfectly correctly to give orders, instructions or advice, but they are not polite ways of requesting people to do things.

Please answer by return of post.   You ought to tell me your plans.

Please help me for a few minutes.   You should shut the door.

Help me, would you?   You had better help me.

Carry this for me, please.

3 shops, restaurants etc

Requests in shops, restaurants etc are usually more direct, and are not always expressed as questions. Typical structures:

Can I have one of those, please?   I'd like to see the wine list, please.

Could I have a look at the red ones?   I would prefer a small one.

Give me ... , please and I want ... , please are not normally considered polite.

But in places where only a few kinds of thing are sold and not much needs to be said, it is enough just to say what is wanted and add please.

'The Times', please.   Two cheeseburgers, please.

Black coffee, please.   Return to Lancaster, please.

4 negative questions

Negative questions (see 368) are not used in polite requests.

Could you give me a light? (NOT Couldn't you give me a light? this sounds like a complaint)

But negative statements with question tags are used in informal requests.

You couldn't give me a light, could you?

I don't suppose you could give me a light, could you? (very polite)

5 expressions of opinion

Expressions of opinion can also be made less direct by turning them into questions. Compare:

It would be better to paint it green. (direct expression of opinion)

Wouldn't it be better to paint it green? (less direct: negative question asking for agreement)

Would it be better to paint it green? (open question - very indirect)

For other rules of 'social language', see 545.

436 politeness (2): distancing verb forms

1 past tenses: How much did you want to spend?

We can make requests (and also questions, suggestions and statements) less direct (and so more polite) by using verb forms that suggest 'distance' from the immediate present reality. Past tenses are often used to do this.

How much did you want to spend, sir? (meaning 'How much do you want to spend?')

How many days did you intend to stay? (meaning' ... do you intend .. .')

I wondered if you were free this evening.

2 progressives: I'm hoping ...

Progressive forms can be used in the same way. They sound more casual and less definite than simple forms, because they suggest something temporary and incomplete.

I'm hoping you can lend me £10. (less definite than I hope ... )

What time are you planning to arrive? (more casual-sounding than Please let us know what time you plan to arrive.)

I'm looking forward to seeing you again. (more casual than I look forward ... )

I'm afraid we must be going.

Past progressives give two levels of distancing.

Good morning. I was wondering: have you got two single rooms?

Were you looking for anything special? (in a shop)

I was thinking - what about borrowing Jake's car?

3 future: You'll need to ...

Another way to distance something is to displace it into the future. Will need/have to can be used to soften instructions and orders.

I'm afraid you'll need to fill in this form.

I'll have to ask you to wait a minute.

And will is sometimes used to say how much money is owed.

That will be £1.65, please.

Future progressive verbs are often used to enquire politely about people's plans (see 220).

Will you be going away at the weekend?

4 modal verbs: would, could and might

The modal verbs would, could and might also make questions, requests and suggestions less direct.

I thought it would be nice to have a picnic.

Hi! I thought I'd come over and introduce myself. My name's Andy.

Could you give me a hand?

Could I ask you to translate this for me?

We could ask Peter to help us.

I was wondering if you might be interested in a game of tennis.

I came in and ordered some shoes from you. - Oh yes, sir. When would that have been, exactly?

Would is very often used to form requests and offers with verbs like like and prefer.

What would you like to drink?

Note the common use of would before verbs of saying and thinking, to make a statement sound less definite.

I would say we'd do better to catch the earlier train.

This is what I would call annoying.

I would think we might stop for lunch soon.

I'm surprised you didn't like the film. I would have thought it was just your kind of thing.

We would ask passengers to have their tickets ready for inspection.

5 conditional and negative expressions

Another way of distancing suggestions from reality is to make them conditional or negative.

It would be better if we turned it the other way up.

What if we stayed at home for a change?

Suppose I gave Alice a call?

If you would come this way ...

I wonder if you could lend me £5?

I don't suppose you want to buy a car, do you?

You wouldn't like to come out with us, by any chance?

You couldn't take the children to school, could you? (BUT NOT Couldn't you take the children to school? This sounds like a complaint - see 435.4.)

437 politeness (3): softening expressions

1 quite, maybe, I think etc

We can express our opinions and intentions less directly (and therefore more politely) by using softening expressions like quite, rather, kind of, a bit, maybe etc.

He's quite difficult to understand, isn't he?

I find her rather bossy, don't you?   The food's a bit expensive.

This music's kind of boring.   Maybe I'll go for a walk now.

For more examples, see 157.16.

2 I think I'll ...

We can say that we are thinking of doing things, instead of expressing our intentions directly.

I think I'll go to bed in a few minutes.

I'm thinking of going to London tomorrow.

I'd quite like to start thinking about going home.

3 We would like to ...

In a formal style, requests, invitations, suggestions etc are often introduced by would like instead of being expressed directly.

We would like to invite you to give a talk to our members on June 14th.

I'd like to suggest that we take a vote.

I would like to congratulate you on your examination results.

438 politics and policy

Politics (usually singular but always with -s - see 524.3) is used to talk about government and related ideas.

I don't know much about politics, but I don't think this is a democracy.

You talk beautifully - you should be in politics.

Policy is used for people's rules of behaviour (not necessarily connected with politics) .

After the war, British foreign policy was rather confused. (NOT ... British foreign politics ... )

It's not my policy to believe everything I hear.

It's the firm's policy to employ a certain number of handicapped people.

439 possessives (1): noun + 's (forms)

1 spelling

singular noun + 's | my father's car
plural noun + ' | my parents' house
irregular plural + 's | the children's room, men's clothes, women's rights, an old people's home

We sometimes just add an apostrophe (') to a singular noun ending in -s, especially in literary and classical references.

Socrates' ideas.   Dickens's novels

But 's is more common.

Mr Lewis's dog

We can add 's or ' to a whole phrase.

the man next door's wife

Henry the Eighth's six wives

the Smiths' new house

Note the difference between, for example:

Joe and Ann's children (one lot of children: Joe and Ann are their parents)

Joe's and Ann's children (two separate lots of children: Joe's and Ann's)

2 pronunciation

The ending 's is pronounced just like a plural ending (see 525).

doctor's /'dɒktəz/   Madge's /'mædʒɪz/

dog's /dɒɡz/   Alice's /'ælɪsɪz/

president's /'prezɪdənts/   James's /'dʒeɪmzɪz/   Jack's /dʒæks/

The apostrophe in a word like parents' does not change the pronunciation at all. But with singular classical (ancient Greek and Roman) names ending in s', we often pronounce a possessive 's even when it is not written.

Socrates' /'ʃɒkrəti:zɪz / ideas.

3 possessive 's and other determiners

A noun cannot normally have an article or other determiner with it as well as a possessive word (see 154). Definite articles are usually dropped when possessives are used.

the car that is John's (= John's car) (NOT the John's car OR John's the car)

But a possessive word may of course have its own article.

the car that is the boss's (= the boss's car)

When we want to use a noun with a/an or this/that etc as well as a possessive, we usually use the 'of mine' construction (see 443).

She's a cousin of John's. (NOT ... a John's cousin.)

I saw that stupid boyfriend of Angie's yesterday. (NOT ... that Angie's stupid boyfriend ... )

4 possessive without a noun

We can use a possessive without a following noun, if the meaning is clear.

Whose is that? ~ Peter's.

We often talk about shops, firms, churches and people's houses in this way. The apostrophe is often dropped in the names of shops and firms.

I bought it at Smiths.   She got married at St Joseph's.

We had a nice time at John and Susan's last night.

In modern English, expressions like the doctor, the dentist, the hairdresser, the butcher are often used without 's.

Alice is at the hairdresser('s).

440 possessives (2): noun + 's (use)

1 meanings of the 's structure

We use the 's structure most often to talk about possessions, relationships and physical characteristics, especially when the first noun refers to a person or animal, or to a country, organisation or other group of living creatures.

That's my father's house. (NOT ... the house of my father)

Mary's brother is a lawyer. (NOT The brother of Mary ... )

I don't like Alice's friends much.   Pete's eyes are like yours.

There's something wrong with the cat's ear.

Scotland's climate is getting warmer.

What do you think of the company's management?

We also use the structure to talk about things that people etc produce.

I didn't believe the girl's story.   Have you read John's letter?

What are Norway's main exports?

The government's decision was extremely unwise.

With some words for people's actions, we can use either 's or a structure with of.

the Queen's arrival OR the arrival of the Queen

the committee's second meeting OR the second meeting of the committee

An of-structure is preferred when the 'possessing' expression is very long. Compare:

My sister's husband.

The husband of the woman who sent you that strange letter.

2 's not used: the name of the street

With nouns which are not the names of people, animals, countries etc, 's is less common, and a structure with a preposition (usually of) is more normal.

the name of the street (NOT the street's name)

the back of the room (NOT the room's back)

the roof of the house (NOT the house's roof)

the top of the page (NOT the page's top)

However, both structures are possible in some expressions.

the earth's gravity OR the gravity of the earth

the plan's importance OR the importance of the plan

the concerto's final movement OR the final movement of the concerto

the train's arrival OR the arrival of the train

the world's oldest mountains OR the oldest mountains in the world (NOT ... of the world) - see 139.7>

Unfortunately, it is not possible to give useful general rules in this area: the choice of structure often depends on the particular expression.

3 subject

Note that the 's structure often corresponds to a sentence in which the first noun is the subject of have or some other verb.

Joe's brother (Joe has a brother)

the dog's tail (the dog has a tail)

America's gold reserves (America has gold reserves)

the manager's decision (the manager made a decision)

Harris's novel (Harris wrote a novel)

In a few cases, the first noun may correspond to the object of a verb.

the prisoner's release (they released the prisoner)

4 measurement of time: a day's journey

The 's structure (or the plural with s') is often used to say how long things last.

a day's journey   twenty minutes' delay

Noun + noun structures are also possible in expressions with numbers (see 386.5).

a three-hour journey   a twenty-minute delay

5 other expressions of time: yesterday's news

We can also use the 's structure to talk about particular moments and events.

yesterday's news   last Sunday's match   tomorrow's weather

6 worth

Note the use of the 's structure before worth.

a pound's worth of walnuts   three dollars' worth of popcorn

For the 's structure in compound nouns (e.g. a doll's house, cow's milk), see 386.

441 possessives (3): my, your etc

1 What kind of words are they?

My, your, his, her, its, our and their are determiners (see 154), and are used at the beginning of noun phrases.

my younger brother   your phone number   their plans

They are also pronouns, because they stand for possessive noun phrases: my younger brother means 'the speaker's younger brother'; their plans means, for example, 'those people's plans' or 'the children's plans'.

They are not adjectives (although they are sometimes called 'possessive adjectives' in older grammars and dictionaries).

2 one's and whose

One's (see 396.5) and whose (see 496; 626) are also possessive determiners/pronouns.

It's easy to lose one's temper when one is criticised.

An orphan is a child whose parents are dead.

Whose bicycle is that?

3 not used with other determiners

My, your etc are not used with other determiners like the, a/an or this.

She's lost her keys. (NOT ... the her keys.)

If we want to use a/an or this, that etc with a possessive, we use the '... of mine' structure (see 443).

A friend of mine has just invited me to Italy. (NOT A my friend ... )

How's that brother of yours? (NOT ... that your brother?)

4 distributive use: She told them to open their books, etc

After a plural possessive, we do not normally use a singular noun in the sense of 'one each'. (For details, see 530.)

The teacher told the children to open their books. (NOT ... their book.)

5 articles instead of possessives

We sometimes use articles instead of my, your etc. This happens in prepositional phrases which refer to the subject or object, mostly when we are talking about blows, pains and other things that often happen to parts of people's bodies.

The ball hit him on the head.

She's got a pain in the stomach.

In other cases we do not normally use articles instead of possessives.

She's got a parrot on her shoulder. (NOT She's got a parrot on the shoulder.)

Katy broke her arm mountain climbing. (NOT Katy broke the arm ... )

He stood there, his eyes closed and his hands in his pockets, looking half asleep. (NOT ... the eyes closed and the hands in the pockets ... )

6 spelling: its, whose

The possessives its and whose have no apostrophes. It's and who's are not possessives, but contractions (see 143): they mean 'it is' or 'it has'; 'who is' or 'who has'. Compare:

The dog's in a good mood. It's just had its breakfast.

Whose little girl is that? ~ You mean the one who's making all that noise?

For structures like Do you mind my smoking?, see 295.3.

For my own, your own etc, see 405.

For the older English form thy, see 392.

For southern AmE you all's, see 429.8.

442 possessives (4): mine, yours etc

Mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs are similar to my, your etc, but they are not determiners, and are used without following nouns. Compare:

That's my coat.   That coat is mine.

Which is your car?   Which car is yours?

Whose can be used with a following noun (see 441) or without.

Whose car is that?   Whose is that car?

We do not use articles with mine etc.

Can I borrow your keys? I can't find mine. (NOT I can't find the mine.)

One's cannot be used without a following noun; instead, we use one's own.

It's nice to have a room of one's own. (NOT ... of one's.)

Its is not normally used without a following noun.

I've had my breakfast, and the dog's had its breakfast too. (NOT ... and the dog's had its.)

For the older English form thine, see 392.

443 possessives (5): a friend of mine etc

We cannot usually put a possessive between another determiner and a noun. We can say my friend, Ann's friend, a friend or that friend, but not a my friend or that Ann's friend. Instead, we use a structure with of + possessive.

     determiner + noun + of + possessive

That policeman is a friend of mine.   He's a cousin of the Queen's.

How's that brother of yours?   She's a friend of my father's.

I met another boyfriend of Lucy's yesterday.

Have you heard this new idea of the boss's?

He watched each gesture of hers as if she was a stranger.

My work is no business of yours.

The structure has a variant in which a noun does not have possessive 's: this is sometimes used when talking about relationships.

He's a cousin of the Queen.   She's a friend of my father.

The word own is used in a similar structure (see 405).

I wish I had a room of my own.

444 prefer

When we say that we prefer one activity to another, two -ing forms can be used. The second can be introduced by to or rather than (more formal).

I prefer riding to walking. (NOT I prefer riding to walk.)

She prefers making toys for her children rather than buying them.

Prefer can also be followed by an infinitive (this is normal after would prefer). We can use an infinitive (without to) or an -ing form after rather than in this case.

She prefers to make toys for her children rather than buy/buying them.

I would prefer to stay at home rather than drive/driving to your mother's.

For more about to with -ing forms, see 298.2.

445 prefixes and suffixes

The following are some of the most common and useful English prefixes and suffixes.

1 prefixes

prefix
mainly added to
usual meaning
examples

a-
adj.
not, without
amoral, asexual

Anglo-
adj.
English
Anglo-American

ante-
adj., verbs
before
antenatal,
antedate,
anteroom

anti-
adj., nouns
against
antisocial,
anti-war

arch-
nouns
supreme, most
archbishop,
arch-enemy

auto-
adj., nouns
self
automatic,
autobiography

bi-
adj., nouns
two
bilingual,
bicycle

cent(i)-
nouns
hundredth
centimetre,
centilitre

co-
verbs, nouns
together (with)
co-operate, co-pilot

counter-
adj., verbs, nouns
against
counteract,
counter-revolution(ary),

cyber-
nouns
computer, internet
cybercrime,
cyberculture

de-
verbs
verbs
reversing action
take away
defrost, deregulate
deforest

dis-
adj., verbs, nouns

verbs
not, opposite

reversing action
disloyal, disappear,
disorder
disconnect, disinfect

e-
nouns
electronic, internet
email, e-commerce,
e-book

eco-
adj., nouns
environment
eco-friendly, eco-tourism

en-
nouns
put in
endanger, encircle

Euro-
adj., nouns
European
Eurocentric, Europop

ex-
nouns
former
ex-husband

extra-
adj.
adj.
exceptionally
outside
extra-special
extra-terrestrial

fore-
verbs, nouns
before
foretell, foreknowledge

geo-
adj., nouns
earth
geothermal, geophysics

hyper-
adj., nouns
extreme(ly)
hypercritical, hypertension

ill-
past participles
badly
ill-advised,
ill-expressed

in-

(im- before p)
(il- before l)
(ir before r)
adj.
not, opposite
incomplete, insensitive,
impossible,
illegible,
irregular

inter-
adj., verbs
between,
among
international,
intermarry

kilo-
nouns
thousand
kilometre, kilogram

mal-
adj., verbs
bad(ly)
maltreat, malformed

mega-
nouns
adj. (informal)
million
extremely
megabyte
mega-rich

micro-
adj., nouns
very small
microlight (aircraft), micrometer

mid-
nouns
in the middle of
mid-December,
mid-afternoon

milli-
nouns
thousandth
millisecond

mini-
nouns
little
miniskirt, minicab

mis-
verbs, nouns
wrong(ly)
misunderstand, misconduct

mono-
adj., nouns
one
monogamous, monorail

multi-
adj., nouns
many
multilingual, multi-purpose

neo-
adj., nouns
new(ly)
neo-classical, neo-Nazi

non-
nouns, adj.
not
non-smoker, non-returnable

omni-
adj.
all
omnipresent

out-
verbs, nouns
do/be more than
outrun, outnumber (vb.)

over-
adj., verbs
too much
over-confident,
overall

pan-
adj.
right across
pan-American

photo-
adj., nouns
light
photoelectric, photosynthesis

poly-
adj., nouns
many
polyglot, polygon

post-
adj., nouns
after
post-modern,
postwar

pre-
adj., nouns
before
premarital, prewar

pro-
adj., nouns
for, in favour of
pro-communist,
pro-government

pseudo-
adj.
false
pseudo-academic

psycho-
adj., nouns
mind, mental
psycho-analysis

re-
verbs, nouns
again, back
rebuild,
reconstruction

semi-
adj., nouns
half
semi-conscious,
semicircle

socio-
adj., nouns
society
socio-economic

sub-
adj., nouns
below
sub-standard,
subconscious,
subway

super-
adj., nouns
more than, special
supernatural, supermarket

tele-
nouns
distant
telescope

thermo-
adj., nouns
heat
thermo-electric,
thermometer

trans-
adj., verbs
across
transatlantic,
transplant

tri-
adj., nouns
three
tripartite, triangle

ultra-
adj., nouns
extreme, beyond
ultra-modern,
ultrasound

un-
adj., parciples

verbs
not, opposite

reverse action
uncertain,
unexpected
untie, undress

under-
verbs, participles
too little
underestimate,
under-developed

uni-
adj., nouns
one
unilateral, unicycle

vice-
nouns
deputy
vice-chairman

2 suffixes that form nouns

suffix
mainly added to
usual meaning
examples

-age
verbs
instance of
breakage, shrinkage

-al
verbs
instance of
refusal, dismissal

-ance, -ancy
adj., verbs
process/state of
reluctance, performance, expectancy

-ation
verbs
verbs
process/state of
product of
exploration, starvation,
organisaton, foundation

-ee
verbs
object of verb
payee, employee

-ence, -ency
adj., verbs
process/state of
independence, presidency

-er
nouns
belonging to
teenager, Londoner

-er/or
verbs
person/thing that does
writer, driver, starter, editor

-ess
nouns
female
lioness, waitress

-ette
nouns
small
kitchenette

-ful
nouns
amount held in
spoonful, cupful

-hood
nouns
quality, group, time of
brotherhood, childhood

-ing
nouns

nouns
quantity of material
activity
carpeting, tubing

farming, surfing

-ism
nouns
belief, practice
communism, impressionism

-ity
adj.
quality of
elasticity, falsity

-ment
verbs
process/result of
government, arrangement

-ness
adj.
quality of
meanness, happiness

-ocracy
nouns
government by
democracy

-ology
nouns
study of
sociology

-phile
nouns
lover of
Anglophile

-phobe
nouns
hater, fearer of
Anglophobe

-phobia
nouns
irrational fear of
arachnophobia
(fear of spiders)

-ship
nouns
status, state, quality of
friendship, dictatorship

3 suffixes that form nouns or adjectives

suffix
mainly added to
usual meaning
examples

-ese
place nouns
inhabitant of, language of
Chinese, Vietnamese

-(i)an
nouns

nouns
supporter of, related to
citizen of
Darwinian, republican

Parisian, Moroccan

-ist
nouns
practitioner of
pianist, racist

4 suffixes that form adjectives

suffix
mainly added to
usual meaning
examples

-able
verbs
can be (done)
washable, drinkable

-al
nouns
related to
accidental

-centric
nouns
centred on
Eurocentric

-ed
nouns
having
wooded, pointed, blue-eyed

-ful
nouns
full of, providing
useful, helpful

-ic
nouns
related to
electric

-ical
nouns
related to
philosophical, logical

-ish
adj., nouns
place nouns
rather (like
inhabitant of, language of)
greenish, childish
Scottish, Turkish

-ive
verbs
can do, does
attractive, selective

-less
nouns
without
careless, homeless

-like
nouns
like
childlike

-ly
nouns
with the quality of
friendly, motherly

-ous
nouns
having
virtuous, ambitious

-proof
nouns
protected/-ing against
bullet-proof, waterproof

-ward
adj.
towards
backward, northward

-y
nouns
like, characterised by
creamy, wealthy

5 suffixes that form adverbs

suffix | mainly added to | usual meaning | examples
-ly | adj. | in an (adjective) way | calmly, slowly
-ward(s) | adj. | towards | backwards, northward(s)

6 suffixes that form verbs

suffix | mainly added to | usual meaning | examples
-ate | nouns | causative | orchestrate, chlorinate
-en | adj. | make, become | deafen, ripen, harden
-ify | adj., nouns | causative: make | simplify, electrify
-ise/-ize | adj., nouns | various | modernise, symbolise

7 Note: negative words with no positive equivalent

Some words with negative prefixes have no positive opposite equivalent: for example, somebody can be distressed, but not tressed. Other examples:

dishevelled, disappoint, discard, disclose, disconcert, disfigure, dismiss, dispose, incessant, indelible, uncanny, uncouth, ungainly, unkempt, unnerved, unspeakable, unwieldy, unwitting

For hyphens after co-, ex- etc, see 559.1d.

446 preparatory it (1): subject

1 It's nice to talk to you

When the subject of a clause is an infinitive expression, this does not normally come at the beginning. We usually prefer to start with the 'preparatory subject' it, and to put the infinitive expression later (long or complicated items are often put towards the end of a sentence - see 512). Preparatory it is common before be + adjective/noun.

It's nice to talk to you. (More natural than To talk to you is nice.)

It was good of you to phone.

It was stupid of you to leave the door unlocked.

It's important to book in advance.

It's my ambition to run a three-hour marathon.

It was a pleasure to listen to her.

It upsets me to hear people arguing all the time.

It can also be a preparatory subject for for + object + infinitive (see 291).

It will suit me best for you to arrive at about ten o'clock.

It's essential for the papers to be ready before Thursday.

2 It's probable that we'll be late

We also use preparatory it when the subject of a clause is itself a clause.

It's probable that we'll be a little late.

It doesn't interest me what you think.

It's surprising how many unhappy marriages there are.

It's exciting when a baby starts talking.

3 It was nice seeing you

It can be a preparatory subject for an -ing form. This is usually informal.

It was nice seeing you.   It's crazy her going off like that.

It's worth going to Wales if you have the time.

It's no use trying to explain - I'm not interested.

It surprised me your not remembering my name.

For more information about structures with worth, see 632.

For there as a preparatory subject with any/no use, see 587.2.

4 It takes ... + infinitive

We can use this structure to say how much time is necessary (see 576).

It took me months to get to know her.

How long does it take to get to London from here?

5 if, as if and as though

It is used to introduce some clauses with if, as if and as though.

It looks as if we're going to have trouble with Ann again.

It's not as if this was the first time she's been difficult.

It will be a pity if we have to ask her to leave.

But it looks as though we may have to.

6 It was my aunt who took Peter to London

It can be used in 'cleft sentences' (see 131) with who- and that-clauses to emphasise one part of a sentence.

It was my aunt who took Peter to London yesterday, not my mother. (emphasising my aunt)

It was Peter that my aunt took to London yesterday, not Lucy. (emphasising Peter)

7 It's amazing the way they work together

It is not normally used as a preparatory subject for noun phrases.

The new concert hall is wonderful. (NOT It's wonderful the new concert hall.)

But in an informal style, it can be a preparatory subject for noun + relative clause.

It's wonderful the enthusiasm that the children show.

This is very common with the way ...

It's amazing the way (that) they work together.

It's strange the way you know what I'm thinking.

For passive structures with it as a preparatory subject, see 417.

447 preparatory it (2): object

1 I find it difficult to talk to you.

We can sometimes use it as a preparatory object. This happens when the object of a verb is an infinitive expression or a clause, and when this has an adjective or noun complement. For example, instead of saying 'I find to talk to you difficult', we prefer 'I find it difficult to talk to you'.

     subject + verb + it + complement + infinitive/clause

We found it tiring to listen to him.

My blister made it a problem to walk.

I thought it strange that she hadn't written.

George made it clear what he wanted.

Note that this structure is not normally used when there is no adjective or noun complement after the verb.

I cannot bear to see people crying. (NOT I cannot bear it to see people crying.)

I remember that we were very happy. (NOT I remember it that ... )

But note the structure I like/love/hate it when ...

I love it when you sing.

Note also the idiom I take it that ... (= I assume that ... ).

I take it that you won't be working tomorrow.

2 I found it strange being ...

This structure is also possible with -ing form objects.

I found it strange being in her house.

3 I would appreciate it if ...

It is used as a preparatory object for an if-clause after would appreciate.

I would appreciate it if you would keep me informed. (NOT I would appreciate if you would ... )

4 owe and leave

Note the structures owe it to somebody to ... and leave it to somebody to ...

We owe it to society to make our country a better place.

I'll leave it to you to decide.

448 prepositions (1): introduction

1 meanings and use

It is difficult to learn to use prepositions correctly in a foreign language. Most English prepositions have several different functions (for instance, one well-known dictionary lists eighteen main uses of at), and these may correspond to several different prepositions in another language. At the same time, different prepositions can have very similar uses (in the morning, on Monday morning, at night). Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are normally used with particular prepositions: we say the reason for, arrive at, angry with somebody, on a bus. Often the correct preposition cannot be guessed, and one has to learn the expression as a whole. In some expressions English has no preposition where one may be used in another language; in other expressions the opposite is true. For details of some difficult cases of prepositional usage, see 449-454.

2 word order

In English, prepositions can come at the ends of clauses in certain structures, especially in an informal style. For details, see 452.

What are you thinking about?   She's not very easy to talk to.

You're just the person I was looking for.   I hate being shouted at.

3 -ing forms

When we use verbs after prepositions, we use -ing forms, not infinitives. For details, see 298, 454.

She saved money by giving up cigarettes.

When to is a preposition, it is also followed by -ing forms. (see 298.2).

I look forward to seeing you soon.

4 prepositions before conjunctions

Prepositions are sometimes dropped before conjunctions and sometimes not. For details, see 453.

I'm not certain (of) what I'm supposed to do.

The question (of) whether they should turn back was never discussed.

5 prepositions and adverb particles

Words like on, off, up, down can function both as prepositions and as adverb particles. For the difference, see 20. For verbs with prepositions and particles, see 599, 600.

She ran up the stairs. (preposition)

She rang me up. (adverb particle)

449 prepositions (2): after particular words and expressions

It is not always easy to know which preposition to use after a particular noun, verb or adjective. Here are some of the most common combinations which cause difficulty to students of English. Alternatives are sometimes possible, and American and British usage sometimes differ. There is only room for very brief notes here; for more complete information about usage with a particular word, consult a good dictionary.

accuse somebody of something (NOT for)

She accused me of poisoning her dog.

afraid of (NOT by)

Are you afraid of spiders?

agree with a person, opinion or policy

He left the firm because he didn't agree with their sales policy.

I entirely agree with you.

agree about a subject of discussion

We agree about most things.

agree on a matter for decision

Let's try to agree on a date.

agree to a suggestion

I'll agree to your suggestion if you lower the price.

angry with (sometimes at) a person for doing something

I'm angry with her for lying to me.

angry about (sometimes at) something

What are you so angry about?

anxious about (= worried about)

I'm getting anxious about money.

anxious for (= eager to have)

We're all anxious for an end to this misunderstanding.

anxious + infinitive (= eager, wanting)

She's anxious to find a better job.

apologise to somebody for something

I think we should apologise to the Smiths.

I must apologise for disturbing you.

arrive at or in (NOT to)

What time do we arrive at Cardiff?

When did you arrive in England?

ask: see 79.

bad at (NOT in)

I'm not bad at tennis.

believe a person or something that is said (= accept as truthful/true - no preposition)

Don't believe her.   I don't believe a word she says.

believe in God, Father Christmas etc (= believe that ... exists; trust)

I half believe in life after death.

If you believe in me I can do anything.

belong in/on/etc (= go, fit, have its place in/on/etc)

Those glasses belong on the top shelf

belong to (= be a member of)

I belong to a local athletics club.

blue with cold, red with anger etc

My hands were blue with cold when I got home

borrow: see 109.

care: see 127.

clever at (NOT in)

I'm not very clever at cooking.

congratulate/congratulations on something

I must congratulate you on your exam results.

Congratulations on your new job!

congratulate/congratulations on/for doing something

He congratulated the team on/for having won all their games.

crash into (NOT USUALLY against)

I wasn't concentrating, and I crashed into the car in front.

depend/dependent on (NOT from OR of)

We may play football - it depends on the weather.

He doesn't want to be dependent on his parents.

BUT: independent of

details of

Write now for details of our special offer.

die of or from

More people died of flu in 1919 than were killed in the First World War.

A week after the accident he died from his injuries.

different: see 155.

difficulty with something, (in) doing something (NOT difficulties to ... )

I'm having difficulty with my travel arrangements.

You won't have much difficulty (in) getting to know people in Italy.

disappointed with somebody

My father never showed if he was disappointed with me.

disappointed with/at/about something

You must be pretty disappointed with/at/about your exam results.

[a] discussion about something

We had a long discussion about politics.

[to] discuss something (no preposition)

We'd better discuss your travel plans.

divide into (NOT in)

The book is divided into three parts.

dream of (= think of, imagine)

I often dreamed of being famous when I was younger.

dream about/of (while asleep)

What does it mean if you dream about/of mountains?

dress(ed) in (NOT with)

Who's the woman dressed in green?

drive into (NOT against)

Granny drove into a tree again yesterday.

enter into an agreement, a discussion etc

We've just entered into an agreement with Carsons Ltd.

enter a place (no preposition)

When I entered the room everybody stopped talking.

example of (NOT for)

Sherry is an example of a fortified wine.

explain something to somebody (NOT explain somebody something)

Could you explain this rule to me?

fight, struggle etc with

I've spent the last two weeks fighting with the tax office.

frightened of or by: see 410.5.

get in (to) and out of a car, taxi or small boat

When I got into my car, I found the radio had been stolen.

get on (to) and off a train, plane, bus, ship, (motor)bike or horse

We'll be getting off the train in ten minutes.

good at (NOT in)

Are you any good at tennis?

[the] idea of ... ing (NOT the idea to ... )

I don't like the idea of getting married yet.

ill with

The boss has been ill with flu this week.

impressed with/by

I'm very impressed with/by your work.

increase in activity, output etc (NOT of)

I'd like to see a big increase in productivity.

independent, independence of or from

She got a job so that she could be independent of her parents.

When did India get its independence from Britain?

insist on (NOT to)

George's father insisted on paying.

interest/interested in (NOT for)

When did your interest in social work begin?

Nut many people are interested in grammar.

interested to do / in doing something: see 299.16

kind to (NOT with)

People have always been very kind to me.

lack of

Lack of time prevented me from writing.

[to] lack (no preposition)

Your mother lacks tact.

[to] be lacking in

She is lacking in tact.

laugh at

I hate being laughed at.

laugh about

We'll laugh about this one day.

leave somewhere (talking about the action of leaving)

I left London early, before the traffic got too heavy.

leave from somewhere (talking about the place)

Does the plane leave from Liverpool or Manchester?

listen to

If you don't listen to people, they won't listen to you.

look at (= point one's eyes at)

Stop looking at me like that.

look after (= take care of)

Thanks for looking after me when I was ill.

look for (= try to find)

Can you help me look for my keys?

make, made of/from: see 336.

marriage to; get/be married to (NOT with)

Her marriage to Philip didn't last very long.

How long have you been married to Sheila?

marry somebody (no preposition)

She married her childhood sweetheart.

near (to): see 365.

nice to (NOT with)

You weren't very nice to me last night.

operate on a patient

They operated on her yesterday evening.

pay for something that is bought (NOT pay something)

Excuse me, sir. You haven't paid for your drink.

pleased with somebody

The boss is very pleased with you.

pleased with/about/at something

I wasn't very pleased with/about/at my exam results.

polite to (NOT with)

Try to be polite to Uncle Richard for once

prevent ... from ... ing (NOT to)

The noise from downstairs prevented me from sleeping.

proof of (NOT for)

I want proof of your love. Lend me some money.

reason for (NOT of)

Nobody knows the reason for the accident.

remind of (and see 499)

She reminds me of a girl I was at school with.

responsible/responsibility for (NOT of)

Who's responsible for the shopping this week?

rude to (NOT with)

Peggy was pretty rude to my family last weekend.

run into (= meet)

I ran into Philip at Victoria Station this morning.

search (without preposition) (= look through; look everywhere in/on)

They searched everybody's luggage.

They searched the man in front of me from head to foot.

search for (= look for)

The customs were searching for drugs at the airport.

shocked at/by

I was terribly shocked at/ by the news of Peter's accident.

shout at (aggressive)

If you don't stop shouting at me I'll come and hit you.

shout to (= call to)

Mary shouted to us to come in and swim.

smile at

If you smile at me like that I'll give you anything you want.

sorry about something that has happened

I'm sorry about your exam results.

sorry for/about something that one has done

I'm sorry for/about breaking your window.

sorry for a person

I feel really sorry for her children.

speak to; speak with (especially AmE)

Could I speak to/with your father for a moment?

suffer from

My wife is suffering from hepatitis.

surprised at/by

Everybody was surprised at/by the weather.

take part in (NOT at OR of)

I don't want to take part in any more conferences.

think of/about (NOT think to)

I'm thinking of studying medicine.

I've also thought about studying dentistry.

the thought of (NOT the thought to)

I hate the thought of going back to work.

throw ... at (aggressive)

Stop throwing stones at the cars.

throw ... to (in a game etc)

If you get the ball, throw it to me.

translate into (NOT in)

Could you translate this into Greek for me?

trip over

He tripped over the cat and fell downstairs.

typical of (NOT for)

The wine's typical of the region.

write: see 610.

wrong with

What's wrong with Rachel today?

For of after determiners like some, most, see 154.

450 prepositions (3): before particular words and expressions

This is a list of a few expressions which often cause problems. For other preposition + noun combinations, see a good dictionary.

at the cinema; at the theatre; at a party; at university

What's on at the cinema this week?

a book (written) by Joyce: a concerto (composed) by Mozart; a film (directed) by Orson Welles (NOT of OR from)

I've never read anything by Dickens.

by car/bike/bus/train/boat/plane/land/sea/air; on foot (but in the car, on a bus etc)

Let's take our time and go by boat.

for ... reason

My sister decided to go to America for several reasons.

from ... point of view (NOT according to OR after)

Try to see it from my point of view.

in ... opinion (NOT according to OR after)

In my opinion, she should have resigned earlier.

in the end (= finally, after a long time)

In the end, I got a visa for Russia.

at the end (= at the point where something stops)

I think the film's a bit weak at the end.

in pen, pencil, ink etc

Please fill in the form in ink.

in a picture, photo etc (NOT on)

She looks much younger in this photo.

in the rain, snow etc

I like walking in the rain.

in a suit, raincoat, shirt, skirt, hat etc

Who's the man in the funny hat over there?

in a ... voice

Stop talking to me in that stupid voice.

on page 20 etc (NOT in/at)

There's a mistake on page 120.

on the radio; on TV; on the phone

Is there anything good on TV tonight?

It's Mrs Ellis on the phone: she says it's urgent.

on time (= at the planned time, neither late nor early)

Peter wants the meeting to start exactly on time.

in time (= with enough time to spare, before the last moment)

He would have died if they hadn't got him to the hospital in time.

451 prepositions (4): expressions without prepositions

This is a list of some common expressions in which we do not use prepositions, or can leave them out.

1 discuss, enter, marry, lack, resemble and approach

These verbs are normally followed by direct objects without prepositions.

We must discuss your plans. (NOT ... discuss about your plans.)

Conversation stopped as we entered the church. (NOT ... entered in(to) the church.)

She married a friend of her sister's. (NOT married with ... )

He's clever, but he lacks experience. (NOT lacks of ... )

The child does not resemble either of its parents. (NOT resemble to ... )

The train is now approaching London Paddington. (NOT ... approaching to ... )

2 next, last etc

Prepositions are not used before a number of common expressions of time beginning next, last, this, that (sometimes), one, every, each, some, any (in an informal style), all.

See you next Monday. (NOT ... on next Monday.)

The meeting's this Thursday.   We met one Tuesday in August.

I'll never forget meeting you that afternoon.

Come any day you like.   The party lasted all night.

Note also tomorrow morning, yesterday afternoon etc.

3 days of the week

In an informal style, we sometimes leave out on before the names of the days of the week.

Why don't you come for a drink (on) Monday evening?

4 a meaning 'each'

No preposition is used in expressions like three times a day, sixty miles an hour, eighty pence a kilo.

Private lessons cost £20 an hour.

For per in expressions like these, see 389.20.

5 What time ... ? etc

We usually leave out at before what time.

What time does Granny's train arrive? (More natural than At what time ... ? )

In an informal style, we can also leave out on before what/which day(s).

What day is your hair appointment?

Which day do you have your music lesson?

6 about

In an informal style, at is often dropped before about + time expression.

I'll see you (at) about 3 o'clock.

7 'how long'

In an informal style, for is often left out in expressions that say how long something lasts.

I've been here (for) three weeks now.   How long are you staying (for)?

8 measurement expressions etc after be

Expressions containing words like height, weight, length, size, shape, age, colour are usually connected to the subject of the clause by the verb be, without a preposition.

He is just the right height to be a policeman.

She's the same age as me.

His head's a funny shape.

I'm the same weight as I was twenty years ago.

What shoe size are you?

What colour are her eyes? (NOT Of what colour ... ?)

9 (in) this way etc

We often leave out in (especially in informal speech) in expressions like (in) this way, (in) the same way, (in) another way etc.

They plant corn (in) the same way their ancestors used to 500 years ago.

10 home

We do not use to before home (see 249).

I'm going home.

In informal English (especially American), at can be left out before home.

Is anybody home?

11 place

In an informal style, to can be dropped in some expressions with the word place. This is normal in American English.

Let's go (to) some place where it's quiet.

I always said you'd go places. (= become successful)

12 infinitive structures

Prepositions can be dropped in the structure noun + infinitive + preposition (see 285.5).

She has no money to buy food (with).

We have an hour to do it (in).

This is particularly common with the noun place.

We need a place to live (in).   She had no place to go (to).

For the use of prepositions after near, see 365.

452 prepositions (5): at the ends of clauses

1 introduction

A preposition often connects two things: (1) a noun, adjective or verb that comes before it, and (2) a 'prepositional object' - a noun phrase or pronoun that comes after the preposition.

This is a present for you.   He's looking at her.

I'm really angry with Joe.   They live in a small village.

In some structures we may put the prepositional object at or near the beginning of a clause. In this case, the preposition does not always go with it - it may stay together with 'its' noun, adjective or verb at the end of the clause. This happens especially in four cases:

wh-questions: Who's the present for?

relative structures: Joe's the person that I'm angry with.

passives: She likes to be looked at.

infinitive structures: The village is pleasant to live in.

2 wh-questions

When a question word is the object of a preposition, the preposition most often comes at the end of the clause, especially in informal usage.

Who's the present for? (For whom is the present? is extremely formal.)

What are you looking at?

Who did you go with?

Where did she buy it from?

Which flight is the general travelling on?

What kind of films are you interested in?

This also happens in indirect wh-questions, and in other what-clauses.

Tell me what you're worried about.

What a lot of trouble I'm in!

Some questions consist simply of question word + preposition.

What with?   Who for?

However, this structure is unusual when there is a noun with the question word.

With what money? (NOT What money with?)

3 relative clauses

When a relative pronoun (see 494) is the object of a preposition, the preposition also often goes at the end of the clause, especially in informal usage.

Joe's the person that I'm angry with. (Less formal than ... with whom I am angry.)

This is the house (that) I told you about. (Less formal than ... about which I told you.)

You remember the boy (who) I was going out with?

She's the only woman (who) I've ever really been in love with.

That's what I'm afraid of.

Because whom is unusual in an informal style, it is very rare in clauses that end with prepositions (see 498.3,7).

4 passives

In passive structures (see 412-420), prepositions go with their verbs.

She likes to be looked at.

I don't know where he is - his bed hasn't been slept in.

Carol was operated on last night.

5 infinitive structures

Infinitive complements (see 284-285) can have prepositions with them.

The village is pleasant to live in.

She needs other children to play with.

Can you get me a chair to stand on?

I've got lots of music to listen to.

Their house isn't easy to get to.

6 exceptions

Many common adverbial expressions consist of preposition + noun phrase (e.g. with great patience, in a temper). In these cases, the preposition is closely connected with the noun, and is kept as near as possible to it; it cannot usually be moved to the end of a clause.

I admired the patience with which she spoke. (NOT ... the patience she spoke with.)

During and since are not normally put at the ends of clauses.

During which period did it happen? (NOT Which period did it happen during?)

Since when have you been working for her? (NOT When have you been working for her since?)

7 formal structures

In a more formal style, a preposition is often put earlier in questions and relative structures, before the question word or relative pronoun.

With whom did she go?

It was the house about which he had told them.

She was the only woman with whom he had ever been in love.

This can also happen in infinitive complements, in a very formal style. A relative pronoun is used.

She needs other children with whom to play.

It is a boring place in which to live.

Note that after prepositions which and whom can be used, but not normally who and that.

Even in a very formal style, prepositions are not often put at the beginning of questions which have be as the main verb.

Who is it for, madam? (NOT For whom is it?)

And the structures where ... to, what ... like and what ... for have a fixed order.

Where shall I send it to? (BUT NOT To where shall I send it?)

What does she look like? (BUT NOT Like what does she look?)

What did you buy that for? (BUT NOT For what did you buy that?)

Prepositions cannot be moved away from passive verbs even in a formal style.

In my family, money was never spoken about. (NOT ... about money was never spoken.)

For more information about formal and informal language, see 311.

For sentences like It's got a hole in (it); I like cakes with cream on (them), see 177.13.

453 prepositions (6): before conjunctions

Prepositions can be followed by conjunctions in some cases but not in others.

1 indirect speech: prepositions dropped before that

Prepositions are not used directly before the conjunction that. In indirect speech - after words that refer to saying, writing, thinking etc - prepositions are usually dropped before that-clauses. Compare:

- I knew about his problems.

I knew that he had problems.

(NOT I knew about that he had problems.)

- She had no idea of my state of mind.

She had no idea that I was unhappy.

(NOT She had no idea of that I was unhappy.)

- I wasn't aware of the time.

I wasn't aware that it was so late.

(NOT I wasn't aware of that it was so late.)

2 emotional reactions: prepositions dropped

Prepositions are also dropped before that after many common words that refer to emotional reactions. Compare:

- We are sorry about the delay.   - I was surprised at her strength.

We are sorry that the train is late.   I was surprised that she was so strong.

(NOT ... sorry about that the train is late.)   (NOT ... surprised at that she was ... )

3 the fact that

In other cases (not involving indirect speech or words referring to emotional reactions) prepositions cannot so often be dropped before that-clauses. Instead, the expression the fact (see 583.3) is generally put between the preposition and that.

The judge paid a lot of attention to the fact that the child was unhappy at home. (NOT The judge paid a lot of attention (to) that the child ... )

He said the parents were responsible for the fact that the child had run away. (NOT ... responsible (for) that the child had run away.)

4 question words

After some very common words like tell, ask, depend, sure, idea, look, prepositions can be dropped before who, which, what and other question words. This is especially common in indirect questions. Compare:

- Tell me about your trip.

Tell me (about) where you went.

- I asked her about her religious beliefs.

I asked her whether she believed in God. (More natural than I asked her about whether she believed in God.)

- We may be late - it depends on the traffic.

We may be late - it depends (on) how much traffic there is.

- I'm not sure of his method.

I'm not sure how he does it. (More natural than I'm not sure of how he does it.)

- Look at this.

Look (at) what I've got.

In other cases it is unusual or impossible to leave out the preposition.

I'm worried about where she is. (NOT I'm worried where she is.)

The police questioned me about what I'd seen. (NOT The police questioned me what I'd seen.)

There's the question of who's going to pay. (More natural than ... the question who's going to pay.)

People's chances of getting jobs vary according to whether they live in the North or the South. (NOT ... according whether ... )

If does not normally follow prepositions; we use whether (see 621) instead.

I'm worried about whether you're happy. (NOT I'm worried about if ... )

For the structures (with and without preposition) that are possible after a particular verb, noun or adjective, see a good dictionary.

454 prepositions (7): -ing forms and infinitives

Prepositions are not normally used before infinitives in English. After verb/noun/adjective + preposition, we usually use the -ing form of a following verb.

He insisted on being paid at once. (NOT He insisted on to be paid ... )

I don't like the idea of getting married. (NOT ... the idea of to get married.)

I'm not very good at cooking. (NOT ... good at to cook.)

In some cases we drop the preposition and use an infinitive. Compare:

- He asked for a loan.   - We're travelling for pleasure.

He asked to borrow some money.   We're travelling to enjoy ourselves.

- She was surprised at his mistake.

She was surprised to see what he had done.

Sometimes two structures are possible. There is often a difference of meaning or use. For more details, see 299.

I'm interested in learning more about my family.

I was interested to learn that my grandfather was Jewish.

For details of the structures that are possible after a particular verb, noun or adjective, see a good dictionary.

455 present perfect (1): basic information

This entry deals with the simple present perfect. For the present perfect progressive, see 458-459.

1 forms

have/has + past participle

I have broken my glasses.

Have you finished?   She hasn't phoned.

In older English, some present perfect forms were made with be, not have (e.g. Winter is come). This does not normally happen in modern English (for exceptions, see 205 and 213).

For details of question structures, see 480-486. For negatives, see 367-371.

For passive forms (e.g. The work has been done), see 412.

2 other languages

In some other languages there are verb forms which are constructed like the English present perfect (compare English I have worked, French j'ai travaillé, German ich habe gearbeitet, Italian ho lavorato, Spanish he trabajado). Note that the English present perfect is used rather differently from most of these.

3 finished events connected with the present

We use the present perfect especially to say that a finished action or event is connected with the present in some way. If we say that something has happened, we are thinking about the past and the present at the same time.

I can't go on holiday because I have broken my leg. (NOT I can't go on holiday because I broke my leg.)

We could often change a present perfect sentence into a present sentence with a similar meaning.

I've broken my leg. → My leg is broken now.

Have you read the Bible. → Do you know the Bible?

Some fool has let the cat in. → The cat is in.

Utopia has invaded Fantasia. → Utopia is at war with Fantasia.

Mary has had a baby. → Mary now has a baby.

Our dog has died. → Our dog is dead.

All the wars in history have taught us nothing. → We know nothing.

The present perfect is often used to express the idea of completion or achievement.

At last! I've finished!

Have you done all the housework?

We do not use the present perfect if we are not thinking about the present (see 456.1). Compare:

I've travelled in Africa a lot. (= I know Africa.)

Some people think that Shakespeare travelled a lot in Germany. (NOT Some people think that Shakespeare has travelled ... )

4 finished events: news

We normally use the present perfect to announce news of recent events.

Andy has won a big prize!

Have you heard? Uncle George has crashed the car again.

Here are the main points of the news. The pound has fallen against the dollar. The Prime Minister has said that the government's economic policies are working. The number of unemployed has reached five million. There has been a fire ...

After announcing news, we usually use the simple past to give more details. (see 456.5).

Uncle George has crashed the car again. He ran into a tree in High Street.

5 time words: ever, before, recently etc

When we talk about finished events with words that mean 'at some/any time up to now' (like ever, before, never, yet, recently, lately, already), we normally use the present perfect.

Have you ever seen a ghost?

I'm sure we've met before.

We haven't seen Beth recently.

Could you clean the car? ~ I've already done it.

She's never said 'sorry' in her life.

Has the postman come yet?

6 repetition up to now: I've written six letters ...

We can use the present perfect to say that something has happened several times up to the present.

I've written six letters since lunchtime.

Adverbs of frequency like often, sometimes, occasionally are common with the present perfect.

How often have you been in love in your life?

I've sometimes thought of moving to Australia.

7 continuation up to now: I've known her for years

To talk about actions and situations that have continued up to the present, both the simple present perfect and the present perfect progressive are possible (depending on the kind of verb and the exact meaning - for details, see 459).

I've known her for years. (NOT I know her for years. - see 460.1)

I've been thinking about you all day.

For present perfect tenses in clauses referring to the future (e.g. I'll take a rest when I've finished cleaning the kitchen), see 580.

456 present perfect (2): perfect or past?

1 thinking about past and present together

We use the present perfect if we are thinking about the past and present together. We do not use the present perfect if we are not thinking about the present. Compare:

- My sister has learnt French. (She can speak French now.)

Shakespeare probably learnt Italian. (NOT Shakespeare has probably learnt Italian.)

- We've studied enough to pass the exam. (The exam is still to come.)

We studied enough to pass the exam. (The exam is over.)

- Ann and Peter have got married! (news)

My parents got married in Canada.

We do not use the present perfect in story-telling.

Once upon a time a beautiful princess fell in love with a poor farmer. (NOT ... has fallen in love ... )

2 finished-time words: present perfect not used

We do not often use the present perfect with words that refer to a completely finished period of time, like yesterday, last week, then, when, three years ago, in 1970. This is because the present perfect focuses on the present, and words like these focus on the past, so they contradict each other. Compare:

- Have you seen Lucy anywhere?

I saw Lucy yesterday. (NOT I have seen Lucy yesterday.)

- Tom has hurt his leg; he can't walk.

Tom hurt his leg last week. (NOT Tom has hurt his leg last week.)

- What have you done with the car keys? I can't find them.

What did you do then? (NOT What have you done then?)

- My brother has had an accident. He's in hospital.

When did the accident happen? (NOT When has the accident happened?)

- All my friends have moved to London.

Eric moved three years ago. (NOT Eric has moved three years ago.)

For tenses with just and just now, see 307.

3 ever, before, recently etc

But with words that mean 'at some/any time up to now' (like ever, before, never, yet, recently, already), we normally use the present perfect (see 455.5).

Have you ever been to Chicago?   I've seen this film before.

4 time not mentioned

We use the present perfect when we are thinking of a period of 'time up to now', even if we do not mention it.

Have you seen 'Romeo and Juliet'? (= Have you ever seen it? or Have you seen the present production?)

You've done a lot for me. (... up to now)

On the other hand, we do not use the present perfect when we are thinking of a particular finished time, even if we do not mention it.

Did you see 'Romeo and Juliet'? (It was on TV last night.)

My grandfather did a lot for me. (... when he was alive)

5 news and details

We normally use the present perfect to announce news (see 455.4). But when we give more details, we usually change to a past tense.

Joe has passed his exam! He got 87%.

There has been a plane crash near Bristol. Witnesses say that there was an explosion as the aircraft was taking off, ...

The Prime Minister has had talks with President Kumani. During a three-hour meeting, they discussed the economic situation, and agreed on the need for closer trade links between the two countries.

For more details, exceptions and notes on American usage, sec 457.6.

457 present perfect (3): perfect or past (advanced points)

1 causes and origins: Who gave you that?

We normally use the present perfect when we are thinking about past events together with their present results (see 455.3).

I can't come to your party because I've broken my leg.

However, we usually prefer a past tense when we identify the person, thing or circumstances responsible for a present situation (because we are thinking about the past cause, not the present result). Compare:

- Look what John's given me! (thinking about the gift)

Who gave you that? (thinking about the past action of giving)

- Some fool has let the cat in.

Who let that cat in?

Other examples:

Why are you crying? ~ Granny hit me. (NOT ... Granny has hit me.)

I'm glad you were born.   How did you get that bruise?

That's a nice picture. Did you paint it yourself?

Some people think that 'Pericles' was not written by Shakespeare.

The Chinese invented paper. (NOT The Chinese have invented paper.)

2 expectation and reality: You're older than I thought

We use a past tense to refer to a belief that has just been shown to be true or false.

It's not as big as I expected. (NOT as I have expected.)

You're older than I thought. (NOT than I have thought.)

But you promised ... ! (NOT But you have promised ... !)

I knew you would help me! (NOT I have known ... !)

3 today, this week etc

With definite expressions of 'time up to now' (e.g. today, this week), perfect and past tenses are often both possible. We prefer the present perfect if we are thinking of the whole period up to now. We prefer the simple past if we are thinking of a finished part of that period. Compare:

- I haven't seen John this week. (the whole week up to now - present perfect more natural)

I saw John this week, and he said ... (earlier in the week - simple past more natural)

- Has Ann phoned today? (meaning 'any time up to now')

Did Ann phone today? (meaning 'earlier, when the call was expected')

4 always, ever and never

In an informal style, simple past tenses are sometimes possible with always, ever and never when they refer to 'time up to now'.

I always knew I could trust you. (OR I've always known ... )

Did you ever see anything like that before? (OR Have you ever seen ... ?)

5 present perfect with past time expressions

Grammars usually say that the present perfect cannot be used together with expressions of finished time - we can say I have seen him or I saw him

yesterday, but not I have seen him yesterday. In fact, such structures are unusual but not impossible (though learners should avoid them). They often occur in brief news items, where space is limited and there is pressure to announce the news and give the details in the same clause.

Here are some real examples taken from news broadcasts, newspaper articles, advertisements, letters and conversations.

Police have arrested more than 900 suspected drugs traffickers in raids throughout the country on Friday and Saturday.

... a runner who's beaten Linford Christie earlier this year.

A 24-year-old soldier has been killed in a road accident last night.

The horse's trainer has had a winner here yesterday .

... indicating that the geological activity has taken place a very long time ago.

Perhaps what has helped us to win eight major awards last year alone ...

I have stocked the infirmary cupboard only yesterday.

I am pleased to confirm that Lloyds Bank ... has opened a Home Loan account for you on 19th May.

6 simple past for news

Recently, some British newspapers have started regularly using the simple past for smaller news announcements - probably to save space. This also happens on TV text news pages. Some authentic examples:

An unnamed Ulster businessman was shot dead by terrorists ...

A woman was jailed for six months after taking a baby boy from his mother.

Driving wind and rain forced 600 out of 2,500 teenagers to abandon the annual 'Ten Tor' trek across Dartmoor.

7 American English

In American English the simple past is often used to give news.

Did you hear? Switzerland declared / has declared war on Mongolia!

(BrE Have you heard? Switzerland has declared war ... )

Uh, honey, I lost / I've lost the keys (BrE ... I've lost ... )

Lucy just called. (BrE Lucy has just called.)

In American English, it is also possible to use the simple past with indefinite past-time adverbs like already, yet, ever and before.

Did you eat already? OR Have you eaten ? (BrE Have you eaten already?)

I didn't call Bobby yet OR I haven't called (BrE I haven't called ... )

British English is changing under American influence, so some of these uses are becoming common in Britain as well.

For more about tenses with just, see 307.

For more about British-American differences, see 51.

8 bad rules (1): 'definite time'

Grammars sometimes say that the present perfect is not used with expressions referring to 'definite time'. This is confusing - the present perfect is not often used with finished time expressions, but it actually is very common with definite time expressions. Compare:

I've lived here for exactly three years, seven months and two days. (present perfect with very definite time-reference)

Once upon a time a little girl lived with her mother in a lonely house in a dark forest. (simple past with very indefinite time-reference)

9 bad rules (2): 'finished actions'

Note also that the choice between simple present perfect and simple past does not depend on whether we are talking about finished actions, as learners' grammars sometimes suggest (though it can depend on whether we are talking about finished time periods). Compare:

That cat has eaten your supper. (finished action - present perfect)

I ate the last of the eggs this morning. (finished action - simple past)

10 bad rules (3): 'recent actions'

The choice also does not depend directly on whether actions and events are recent. Recent events are more likely to be 'news', and we are more likely to be concerned about their present results, so many present perfect sentences are in fact about recent events. But it is possible to use the present perfect to talk about things that happened a long time ago. Compare:

The French revolution has influenced every popular radical movement in Europe since 1800. (200-year-old event - present perfect)

Ann phoned five minutes ago. (very recent event - simple past)

11 both possible

The difference between the present perfect and the simple past is not always very clear-cut. It often depends on our 'focus': are we thinking mostly about the present relevance of a past event, or about the past details? In some cases both present perfect and past are possible with little difference of meaning.

We (have) heard that you have rooms to let.

Has Mark phoned? OR Did Mark phone?

I've given / I gave your old radio to Philip.

458 present perfect (4): progressive (or 'continuous')

1 forms

     have/has been + -ing

I have been thinking about you.

Have you been waiting long?

I haven't been studying very well recently.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

2 continuing actions and situations

We use the present perfect progressive to look back over actions and situations which started in the past and are still going on.

I've been working very hard recently.

It's been raining all day. I'm tired of it.

House prices have been going up steadily all this year.

We often use the present perfect progressive to talk about people's use of their time up to the present.

Hi! What have you been doing with yourself? ~ I've been trying to write a novel.

That kid has been watching TV non-stop since breakfast.

3 actions and situations that have just stopped

We also use the present perfect progressive for actions and situations which have just stopped, but which have present results.

You look hot. ~ Yes, I've been running.

Sorry I'm late. Have you been waiting long?

I must just go and wash. I've been gardening.

4 repeated actions

We can use the present perfect progressive for repeated as well as continuous activity.

People have been phoning me all day.

I've been waking up in the night a lot. I think I'll see the doctor.

5 time expressions: recently, lately, this week, since ..., for ..., etc

We often use the present perfect progressive with words that refer to a period of time continuing up to now, like recently, lately, this week, since January, for the last three days.

The firm has been losing money recently.

John's been walking in Scotland all this week.

I've been doing a new job since January.

It's been raining for the last three days.

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

6 not used with finished time expressions

We cannot use the present perfect progressive with expressions that refer to a finished period of time.

You look tired. ~ Yes. I was cycling from midday until five o'clock. (NOT ... I've been cycling from midday until five o'clock.)

7 how long?

We use the present perfect progressive, not the present progressive, to talk about how long something has been happening.

How long have you been studying English? (NOT How long are you studying ... ?)

I've been working here for two months. (NOT I'm working here for two months.)

For details, see 460.

8 present perfect progressive and (simple) present perfect

In some cases, we can also use the simple present perfect to talk about actions and situations continuing up to the present. Compare:

- How long have you been working with her?

How long have you known her?

- That man has been standing on the corner all day.

For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.

For the differences, see 459.

459 present perfect (5): simple or progressive?

1 non-progressive verbs

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning is one for which a progressive form is more suitable. Common examples are be, have and know.

John's been ill all week. (NOT John's been being ill ... )

She's had a cold since Monday. (NOT She's been having a cold ... )

I've only known her for two days. (NOT I've only been knowing her ... )

2 temporary or permanent

We use progressive forms mostly for shorter, temporary actions and situations. When we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we often prefer the simple present perfect. Compare:

- That man has been standing on the corner all day.

For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.

- I haven't been working very well recently.

He hasn't worked for years.

- I've been living in Sue's flat for the last month.

My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives.

Progressive and simple tenses are sometimes both possible, with a slight difference of emphasis.

It's been raining / It's rained steadily since last Saturday.

Harry has been working / has worked in the same job for thirty years.

We generally use the progressive to talk about continuous change or development, even if this is permanent.

Scientists believe that the universe has been expanding steadily since the beginning of time.

3 how much? how often? simple present perfect

We use the simple present perfect to say how much we have done, or how often we have done something. Compare:

- I've been planting rose bushes all afternoon.

Look at all the rose bushes I've planted! (NOT ... I've been planting.)

- We've been painting the house.

We've painted two rooms since lunchtime. (NOT We've been painting two rooms since lunchtime.)

- I've been playing a lot of tennis recently.

I've played tennis three times this week.

460 present perfect (6): present perfect or present?

1 how long? present perfect

We use a present perfect to say how long a situation or action has continued up to now. Compare:

- It's raining again.

It's been raining since Christmas. (NOT It's raining since Christmas.)

- Are you learning English?

How long have you been learning? (NOT How long are you learning?)

- I hear you're working at Smiths. ~ Yes, I've been working there for a month. (NOT I'm working there for ... )

- I know her well.

I've known her for years. (NOT I know her for years.)

- My brother's a doctor.

How long has he been a doctor? (NOT How long is he a doctor?)

Compare also:

How long are you here for? (= until when; when are you leaving?)

How long have you been here for? (= since when; when did you arrive?)

For the difference between simple and progressive forms, see 459.

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

For tenses with since, see 522.

2 This is the first time etc

We use a simple present perfect after this is the first time that ... , it's the second ... that ... , and similar structures (see 591).

This is the first time that I've heard her sing. (NOT This is the first time that I hear her sing.)

It's the fifth time you've asked me the same question.

This is only the second opera I've ever seen.

For present perfect and simple present passives with similar meanings (e.g. The shop has been / is closed), see 420.

461 present tenses (1): introduction

1 the two present tenses

Most English verbs have two present tenses. Forms like I wait, she thinks are called 'simple present' or 'present simple'; forms like I am waiting or she's thinking are called 'present progressive' or 'present continuous'. The two present tenses are used in different ways.

2 general time: simple present

When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly or all the time (not just around now), we usually use the simple present (see 462-463 for details).

My parents live near Dover.   Water freezes at 0° Celsius.

I go to London about three times a week.

3 around now: present progressive

When we talk about temporary continuing actions and events, which are just going on now or around now, we usually use a present progressive tense (see 464 for details).

What are you doing? ~ I'm reading.

I'm travelling a lot these days.

4 future time

Both present tenses can be used to talk about the future.

I'll meet you when you arrive.

Come and see us next week if you're passing through London.

For the differences, see 463-464, 466.

462 present tenses (2): simple present (forms)

1 forms

Affirmative
Question
Negative

I work
you work
he/she/it works
we work
they work
do I work?
do you work?
does he/she/it work?
do we work?
do they work?
I do not work
you do not work
he/she/it does not work
we do not work
they do not work

- Contracted negatives (see 143): I don't work, he doesn't work etc

- Negative questions (see 368): do I not work? or don't I work? etc

For passives (e.g. The work is done), see 412.

2 spelling of third person singular forms

Most verbs:
add -s to infinitive
work → works
a sit → sits
stay → stays

Verbs ending in consonant + y:
change y to i and add -es

But (vowel + y):
cry → cries
hurry → hurries
reply → replies
enjoy → enjoys

Verbs ending in -s, -z, -ch, -sh or -x:
add -es to infinitive
miss → misses
buzz → buzzes
watch → watches
push → pushes
fix → fixes

Exceptions:
have → has
go → goes
do → does

3 pronunciation of third person singular forms

The pronunciation of the -(e)s ending depends on the sound that comes before it. The rules are the same as for the plural -(e)s ending - see 525.

Irregular pronunciations: says (/sez/, not /seɪz/); does (/dʌz/, not /du:z/).

463 present tenses (3): simple present (use)

1 general time: It always rains in November

We often use the simple present to talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.

What do frogs eat? (NOT What are frogs eating?)

It always rains here in November.

I play tennis every Wednesday.

Alice works for an insurance company.

2 not used for things happening just around the present

We do not usually use the simple present to talk about temporary situations or actions that are only going on around the present. Compare:

- Water boils at 100° Celsius.

The kettle's boiling - shall I make tea? (NOT The kettle boils ... )

- It usually snows in January.

Look - it's snowing! (NOT Look - It snows!)

- I play tennis every Wednesday.

Where's Bernard? ~ He's playing tennis. (NOT ... He plays tennis.)

3 non-progressive verbs

However, the simple present is used for this 'around the present' meaning with verbs that do not have progressive forms (see 471).

I like this wine very much. (NOT I'm liking ... )

I believe you. (NOT I'm believing you.)

4 talking about the future

We do not normally use the simple present to talk about the future.

I promise I won't smoke any more. (NOT I promise I don't smoke any more.)

We're going to the theatre this evening. (NOT We go to the theatre this evening. )

There's the doorbell. ~ I'll get it. (NOT I get it.)

However, the simple present is used for 'timetabled' future events (see 215).

His train arrives at 11.46.   I start my new job tomorrow.

And the simple present is often used instead of will ... in subordinate clauses that refer to the future. (For details, see 580).

I'll kill anybody who touches my possessions. (NOT ... who will touch ... )

I'll phone you when I get home. (NOT ... when I'll get home.)

The simple present is also used in suggestions with Why don't you ... ?

Why don't you take a day off tomorrow?

5 series of events: demonstrations, commentaries, instructions, stories

When we talk about series of completed actions and events, we often use the simple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations, commentaries, instructions and present-tense stories (see 465 for more details).

First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it. Next ... (NOT First I am taking a bowl ...)

Lydiard passes to Taylor, Taylor shoots - and it's a goal!

How do I get to the station? ~ You go straight on to the traffic lights, then you turn left, ...

So I go into the office, and I see this man, and he says to me ...

6 how long? present tenses not used

We use a perfect tense, not a present tense, to say how long a present action or situation has been going on. (See 460 for details.)

I've known her since 1960. (NOT I know her since 1960.)

464 present tenses (4): progressive (or 'continuous')

1 present progressive: forms

am/are/is + -ing

I am waiting.

Are you listening?   She isn't working today.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

For passive forms (e.g. The work is being done), see 412.

2 use: 'around now'

We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situations that are going on now or 'around now': before, during and after the moment of speaking.

Hurry up! We're all waiting for you! (NOT We all wait ... )

What are you doing? ~ I'm writing letters. (NOT ... I write letters.)

Why are you crying? Is something wrong? (NOT Why do you cry? ... )

He's working in Saudi Arabia at the moment.

3 repeated actions

The present progressive can refer to repeated actions and events, if these are just happening around the present (for more details, see 466).

Why is he hitting the dog?   I'm travelling a lot these days.

4 changes

We also use the present progressive to talk about developments and changes.

That child's getting bigger every day.   House prices are going up again.

5 talking about the future

We often use the present progressive to talk about the future (see 214).

What are you doing tomorrow evening?

Come and see us next week if you're passing through London.

6 things that happen all the time: not used

We do not normally use the present progressive to talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time. Compare:

- Look - the cat's eating your breakfast!

What do bears eat? ~ Everything. (NOT What are bears eating? ... )

- Why is that girl standing on the table?

Chetford Castle stands on a hill outside the town. (NOT ... is standing ... )

- My sister's living at home for the moment.

Your parents live in North London, don't they?

7 verbs not used in progressive forms

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning is 'just around now'.

I like this wine. (NOT I'm liking this wine.)

Do you believe what he says? (NOT Are you believing ... ?)

The tank contains about 7,000 litres at the moment. (NOT The tank is containing ... )

8 how long? present tenses not used

We use a perfect tense, not a present tense, to say how long something has been going on. (See 460 for details.)

I've been learning English for three years. (NOT I'm learning English for three years.)

465 present tenses (5): stories, commentaries and instructions

1 stories

Present tenses are often used informally to tell stories. The simple present is used for the events - the things that happen one after another. The present progressive is used for 'background' - things that are already happening when the story starts, or that continue through the story. (This is like the difference between the simple past and past progressive: see 422.)

So I open the door, and I look out into the garden, and I see this man. He's wearing pyjamas and a policeman's helmet. 'Hello,' he says ...

There's this Scotsman, you see, and he's walking through the jungle when he meets a gorilla. And the gorilla's eating a snake sandwich. So the Scotsman goes up to the gorilla ...

The simple present is common in summaries of plays, stories, etc.

In Act I, Hamlet sees the ghost of his father. The ghost tells him ...

Chapter 2: Henry goes to Scotland and meets the Loch Ness Monster.

2 commentaries

In commentaries, the use of tenses is similar. The simple present is used for the quicker actions and events (which are finished before the sentences that describe them); the present progressive is used for longer actions and situations. There are more simple and fewer progressive tenses in a football commentary, for instance, than in a commentary on a boat race.

Smith passes to Devaney, Devaney to Barnes - and Harris intercepts ... Harris passes back to Simms, nice ball - and Simms shoots!

Oxford are pulling slightly ahead of Cambridge now; they're rowing with a beautiful rhythm; Cambridge are looking a little disorganised ...

3 instructions and demonstrations

We often use present tenses in a similar way to give instructions, demonstrations and directions.

OK, let's go over it again. You wait outside the bank until the manager arrives. Then you radio Louie, who's waiting round the corner, and he drives round to the front entrance. You and Louie grab the manager ...

First I put a lump of butter into a frying pan and light the gas; then while the butter's melting I break three eggs into a bowl, like this ...

How do I get to the station? ~ You go straight on to the traffic lights, then you turn left ...

466 present tenses (6): advanced points

1 repeated actions: simple or progressive?

The present progressive can refer to repeated actions and events, if these are happening around the moment of speaking.

Why is he hitting the dog?

Jake's seeing a lot of Felicity these days.

But we do not use the present progressive for repeated actions and events which are not closely connected to the moment of speaking.

I go to the mountains about twice a year. (NOT I'm going to the mountains about twice a year.)

Water boils at 100° Celsius. (NOT Water is boiling at 100° Celsius.)

2 long-lasting changes

We use the present progressive for changes and developments, even if these

are very long-lasting.

The climate is getting warmer. (NOT The climate gets warmer.)

The universe is expanding, and has been since its beginning.

3 You look lovely when you're smiling

We use the simple present for regular or repeated actions and events; but we can use the present progressive for things that are going on around these actions and events.

At seven, when the post comes, I'm usually having breakfast.

She doesn't like to be disturbed if she's working.

You look lovely when you're smiling.

4 I promise ... etc

Sometimes we do things by saying special words (e.g. promising, agreeing). We usually use the simple present in these cases.

I promise never to smoke again. (NOT I'm promising ... )

I swear that I will tell the truth ...

I agree. (NOT I am agreeing.)

He denies the accusation. (NOT He is denying ... )

5 I hear etc

The simple present is used with a perfect or past meaning in introductory expressions like I hear, I see, I gather, I understand (see 243).

I hear you're getting married. (= I have heard ... )

I see there's been trouble down at the factory.

I gather Peter's looking for a job.

Quotations are often introduced with says.

No doubt you all remember what Hamlet says about suicide.

It says in the paper that petrol's going up again.

6 Here comes ... etc

Note the structures here comes ... and there goes ...

Here comes your husband. (NOT Here is coming ... )

There goes our bus - we'll have to wait for the next one.

7 I feel / I'm feeling

Verbs that refer to physical feelings (e.g. feel, hurt, ache) can often be used in simple or progressive tenses without much difference of meaning.

How do you feel? OR How are you feeling?

My head aches. OR My head is aching.

8 formal correspondence

Some fixed phrases that are used in letter-writing can be expressed either in the simple present (more formal) or in the present progressive (less formal).

We write to advise you ... (Less formal: We are writing to let you know ... )

I enclose my cheque for £200. (Less formal: I am enclosing ... )

I look forward to hearing from you. (Less formal: I'm looking forward to hearing ... )

For progressive forms with always and similar words (e.g. She's always losing her keys), see 472.

For progressive forms in general, see 470.

For the 'distancing' use of progressive forms, see 436.

For simple and progressive forms in older English, see 392.

467 presently

When presently means 'now, at present', it usually comes in mid-position with the verb (see 24).

Professor Holloway is presently working on plant diseases.

The Manager is presently on holiday, but he will contact you on his return.

An older meaning of presently (becoming less common) is 'not now, later', 'in a minute'.

With this meaning, presently usually comes in end-position, or separately as a short answer.

He's having a rest now. He'll be down presently.

Mummy, can I have an ice-cream? ~ Presently, dear.

468 price and prize

The price is what you pay if you buy something. A prize is what you are given if you have done something exceptional, or if you win a competition.

What's the price of the green dress? (NOT ... the prize of the green dress?)

She received the Nobel prize for physics. (NOT ... the Nobel price ... )

469 principal and principle

These two words have the same pronunciation. The adjective principal means 'main', 'most important'.

What's your principal reason for wanting to be a doctor? (NOT ... your principle reason ... )

The noun principal means 'headmaster' or 'headmistress' (especially, in Britain, of a school for adults).

If you want to leave early you'll have to ask the Principal.

A principle is a scientific law or a moral rule.

Newton discovered the principle of universal gravitation. (NOT ... the principal of universal gravitation.)

She's a girl with very strong principles.

470 progressive (1): general

1 forms

Progressive verb forms (also called 'continuous' forms) are made with be + -ing.

I am waiting for the shops to open. (present progressive)

Your suit is being cleaned. (present progressive passive)

She phoned while I was cooking. (past progressive)

I didn't know how long she had been sitting there. (past perfect progressive)

Will you be going out this evening? (future progressive)

I'd like to be lying on the beach now. (progressive infinitive)

2 terminology and use

A progressive form does not simply show the time of an event. It also shows how the speaker sees the event - generally as ongoing and temporary, not completed or permanent. (Because of this, grammars often talk about 'progressive aspect' rather than 'progressive tenses") Compare:

- I've read your letter. (completed action)

I've been reading a lot of thrillers recently. (not necessarily completed)

- The Rhine runs into the North Sea. (permanent)

We'll have to phone the plumber - water's running down the kitchen wall. (temporary)

When a progressive is used to refer to a short momentary action, it often suggests repetition.

Why are you jumping up and down?

The door was banging in the wind.

3 distancing

Progressive forms can make requests, questions and statements less direct. (They sound less definite than simple forms, because they suggest something temporary and incomplete.)

I'm hoping you can lend me £10. (less definite than I hope ... )

What time are you planning to arrive?

I'm looking forward to seeing you again.

I'm afraid we must be going.

I was wondering if you had two single rooms.

Will you be going away at the weekend?

For more about this kind of 'distancing', see 436.

For more details of the use of progressives, see the individual entries on the present progressive, past progressive etc.

471 progressive (2): non-progressive verbs

1 verbs not used in progressive ('continuous') forms

Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in progressive forms.

I like this music. (NOT I'm liking this music.)

I rang her up because I needed to talk. (NOT ... because I was needing to talk.)

Some other verbs are not used in progressive forms when they have certain meanings. Compare:

I'm seeing the doctor at ten o'clock.

I see what you mean. (NOT I'm seeing what you mean.)

Many of these non-progressive verbs refer to states rather than actions. Some refer to mental states (e.g. know, think, believe); some others refer to the use of the senses (e.g. smell, taste).

Modal verbs (e.g. can, must) have no progressive forms. See 353.

2 common non-progressive verbs

Here is a list of some common verbs which are not often used in progressive forms (or which are not used in progressive forms with certain meanings).

mental and emotional states

believe
(dis)like
see
(= understand)

doubt
love
suppose

feel
(= have an opinion)
prefer
think
(= have an opinion)

hate
realise
understand

imagine
recognise
want

know
remember
wish

use of the senses

feel | see | sound
hear | smell | taste

communicating and causing reactions

agree | impress | promise
appear | look (= seem) | satisfy
astonish | mean | seem
deny | please | surprise
disagree |  |

other

be
deserve
measure
(= have length etc)

belong
fit
need

concern
include
owe

consist
involve
own

contain
lack
posses

depend
matter
weigh
(= have weight)

More details of the use of some of these verbs are given in other entries in the book. See the Index for references.

3 progressive and non-progressive uses

Compare the progressive and non-progressive uses of some of the verbs listed above.

- I'm feeling fine. (OR I feel fine. - see 202.1)

I feel we shouldn't do it. (NOT I'm feeling we shouldn't do it. - feel here = have an opinion.)

- What are you thinking about?

What do you think of the government? (NOT What are you thinking of the government? - think here = have an opinion.)

- I'm seeing Leslie tomorrow.

I see what you mean. (NOT I'm seeing what you mean. - see here = understand.)

- Why are you smelling the meat? Is it bad?

Does the meat smell bad? (NOT Is the meat smelling bad? - see 535.)

- I'm just tasting the cake to see if it's OK

The cake tastes wonderful. (NOT The cake's tasting wonderful. - see 577.)

- The scales broke when I was weighing myself this morning.

I weighed 68 kilos three months ago - and look at me now! (NOT I was weighing 68 kilos ... - weigh here = have weight.)

Occasionally 'non-progressive' verbs are used in progressive forms in order to emphasise the idea of change or development.

These days, more and more people prefer / are preferring to take early retirement.

The water tastes / is tasting better today.

As I get older, I remember / I'm remembering less and less.

I'm liking it here more and more as time goes by.

Need, want and mean can have future or present perfect progressive uses.

Will you be needing the car this afternoon?

I've just been invited to Sydney. It's wonderful - I've been wanting to go to Australia for years.

I've been meaning to tell you about Andrew. He ...

4 can see etc

Can is often used with see, hear, feel, taste, smell, understand and remember to give a kind of progressive meaning, especially in British English. For details, see 125.

I can see Sue coming down the road.

Can you smell something burning?

5 -ing forms

Even verbs which are never used in progressive tenses have -ing forms which can be used in other kinds of structure.

Knowing her tastes, I bought her a large box of chocolates.

I don't like to go to a country without knowing something of the language.

472 progressive (3): with always etc

We can use always, continually and similar words with a progressive form to mean 'very often'.

I'm always losing my keys.

Granny's nice. She's always giving people little presents.

I'm continually running into Paul these days.

That cat's forever getting shut in the bathroom.

This structure is used to talk about things which happen very often (perhaps more often than expected), and which are unexpected or unplanned. Compare:

- When Alice comes to see me, I always meet her at the station. (a regular, planned arrangement)

I'm always meeting Mrs Bailiff in the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meetings)

- When I was a child, we always had picnics on Saturdays in the summer. (regular, planned)

Her mother was always arranging little surprise picnics and outings. (unexpected, not regular)

473 punctuation (1): full stop, question mark and exclamation mark

1 sentence division

Full stops (AmE periods), question marks and exclamation marks (AmE exclamation points) are used to close sentences. After one of these, a new sentence has a capital letter.

I looked out of the window. It was snowing again.

Why do we try to reach the stars? What is it all for?

They have no right to be in our country! They must leave at once!

We do not normally put full stops, question or exclamation marks before or after grammatically incomplete sentences.

She phoned me as soon as she arrived. (NOT She phoned me. As soon as she arrived.)

In his job he has to deal with different kinds of people. (NOT In his job. He has to deal with different kinds of people.)

Did you understand why I was upset? (NOT Did you understand? Why I was upset?)

However, sometimes we can emphasise a clause or phrase by separating it with a full stop and capital letter.

People are sleeping out on the streets. In Britain. In the 21st century. Because there are not enough houses.

2 abbreviations

Full stops can be used after abbreviations (see 2). This is more common in American English than in British English.

Dr. Andrew C. Burke, M.A. (OR Dr Andrew C Burke, MA)

3 indirect questions

We do not use question marks after indirect questions (see 276).

I asked her what time it was. (NOT ... what time it was?)

474 punctuation (2): colon

1 explanations

A colon (:) usually introduces an explanation or further details.

We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.

There was a problem with the car: it was losing oil.

2 lists

A colon can introduce a list.

The main points are as follows: (l) ... , (2) ... , (3) ....

We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.

3 subdivisions

A colon can introduce a subdivision of a subject in a title or heading.

punctuation: colon

4 capitals

In British English, it is unusual for a capital letter to follow a colon (except at the beginning of a quotation). However, this can happen if a colon is followed by several complete sentences.

My main objections are as follows:
First of all, no proper budget has been drawn up.
Secondly, there is no guarantee that ...

In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters.

5 letters

Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation (Dear ... ) in a business letter.

Dear Mr. Callan:

I am writing to ...

British usage prefers a comma or no punctuation mark at all in this case.

6 direct speech

Normally, direct speech is introduced by a comma in writing (see 476.9).

Stewart opened his eyes and said, 'Who's your beautiful friend?'

But a long passage of direct speech may be introduced by a colon.

Introducing his report for the year, the Chairman said: 'A number of factors have contributed to the firm's very gratifying results. First of all, ... '

And a colon is used when direct speech is introduced by a name or short phrase (as in the text of a play, or when famous sayings are quoted).

POLONIUS: What do you read, my lord?
HAMLET: Words, words, words.

In the words of Murphy's Law: 'Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.'

475 punctuation (3): semi-colon

1 instead of full stops

Semi-colons (;) are sometimes used instead of full stops, in cases where sentences are grammatically independent but the meaning is closely connected. Semi-colons are not nearly as common as full stops or commas.

Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings.

It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work.

Commas are not usually possible in cases like these (see 476).

2 in lists

Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list, particularly when these are grammatically complex.

You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any damage; ...

For commas in lists, see 476.

476 punctuation (4): comma

Commas (,) generally reflect pauses in speech.

1 co-ordinate clauses

Clauses connected with and, but or or are usually separated by commas unless they are very short. Compare:

- Jane decided to try the home-made steak pie, and Andrew ordered Dover sole with boiled potatoes.

Jane had pie and Andrew had fish.

- She had very little to live on, but she would never have dreamed of taking what was not hers.

She was poor but she was honest.

2 subordinate clauses

When subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often followed by commas. Compare:

If you are ever in London, come and see me.

Come and see me if you are ever in London.

Commas are not used before that-clauses.

It is quite natural that you should want to meet your father. (NOT It is quite natural, that ... )

3 grammatically separate sentences: commas not used

We do not usually put commas between grammatically separate sentences (in places where a full stop or a semi-colon would be possible - see 473 and 475).

The blue dress was warmer. On the other hand, the purple one was prettier. OR The blue dress was warmer; on the other hand ... (NOT The blue dress was warmer, on the other hand ... )

4 unusual word order

If words or expressions are put in unusual places or interrupt the normal progression of a sentence, we usually separate them off by commas.

My father, however, did not agree.

lane had, surprisingly, paid for everything.

We were, believe it or not, in love with each other.

Andrew Carpenter, the deputy sales manager, was sick.

Two commas are necessary in these cases.

(NOT Andrew Carpenter the deputy sales manager, was sick ... )

5 adjectives

After be and other 'link verbs' (see 328), commas are always used between adjectives.

The cowboy was tall, dark and handsome.

Before a noun, we generally use commas between adjectives which give similar kinds of information.

This is an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project.

Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives.

a tall(,) dark(,) handsome cowboy

Commas cannot be dropped when adjectives or other modifiers refer to different parts of something.

a green, red and gold carpet (NOT a green red ... )

concrete, glass and plastic buildings

Commas are not normally used before a noun when adjectives give different kinds of information.

Have you met our handsome new financial director? (NOT ... our handsome, new, financial director?)

6 identifying expressions: commas not used

When nouns are followed by identifying expressions which show exactly who or what is being talked about, commas are not used. Compare:

- The driver in the Ferrari was cornering superbly. (The phrase in the Ferrari identifies the driver.) (NOT The driver, in the Ferrari, was cornering superbly OR The driver in the Ferrari, was cornering superbly.)

Stephens, in the Ferrari, was cornering superbly. (The phrase in the Ferrari does not identify the driver; he is already identified by his name, Stephens.)

- The woman who was talking on the phone gave Parker a big smile.

Mrs Grange, who was talking on the phone, gave Parker a big smile.

For more about identifying and non-identifying relative clauses, see 495.

7 long subjects: commas not used

We do not usually put a comma after a subject, even if it is very long.

The man from the Japanese Ministry of Education arrived early. (NOT The man from the Japanese Ministry of Education, arrived early.)

What we need most of all is more time. (NOT What we need most of all, is ... )

8 lists

We can use commas to separate items in a series or list. A comma is not usually used with and between the last two items unless these are long. Compare:

I went to Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Germany.

You had a holiday at Christmas, at New Year and at Easter.

I spent yesterday playing cricket, listening to jazz records, and talking about the meaning of life.

For semi-colons in lists, see 475.

9 direct speech

A comma is generally used between a reporting expression and a piece of direct speech.

He said, 'There's no way we can help her'.

If a reporting expression follows a piece of direct speech, we usually put a comma instead of a full stop before the closing quotation mark.

'I don't like this one bit,' said Julia.

10 indirect speech: no comma before that etc

We do not put commas before that, what, where etc in indirect speech structures.

Everybody realised that I was a foreigner. (NOT Everybody realised, that ... )

They quickly explained what to do. (NOT They quickly explained, what ... )

I didn't know where I should go. (NOT I didn't know, where ... )

11 numbers

Commas are used to divide large numbers into groups of three figures, by separating off the thousands and millions.

6,435 (NOT 6.485) 7,456,189

We do not always use commas in four-figure numbers, and they are never used in dates.

3,164 OR 3164    the year 1946

Spaces are sometimes used instead of commas.

There are 1 000 millimetres in one metre.

We do not use commas in decimals (see 389.1).

3.5 = three point five OR three and a half (NOT 3,5 three comma five)

477 punctuation (5): dash

Dashes (-) are especially common in informal writing. They can be used in the same way as colons, semi-colons or brackets.

There are three things I can never remember - names, faces, and I've forgotten the other.

We had a great time in Greece - the kids really loved it.

My mother - who rarely gets angry - really lost her temper.

A dash can introduce an afterthought, or something unexpected and surprising.

We'll be arriving on Monday morning - at least, I think so.

And then we met Bob - with Lisa, believe it or not!

For the use of hyphens (as in hard-working or co-operative), see 559.

478 punctuation (6): quotation marks

Quotation marks can be single ('...') or double ("..."). They are also called 'inverted commas' in British English.

1 direct speech

We use quotation marks (single or double) when we quote direct speech. For quotations inside quotations, we use double quotation marks inside single (or single inside double).

'His last words,' said Albert, 'were "Close that bloody window".'

2 special use of words

We often put quotation marks (usually single) round words which are used in special ways - for example when we talk about them, when we use them as titles, or when we give them special meanings.

People disagree about how to use the word 'disinterested'.

His next book was 'Heart of Darkness'.

A textbook can be a 'wall' between the teacher and the class.

479 punctuation (7): apostrophe /ə'pɒstrəfi:/

We use apostrophes (') for three main reasons.

1 missing letters

Apostrophes replace letters in contracted forms (see 143).

can't (= cannot)   I'd (= I would/had)

it's (= it is/has)   who's (= who is/has)

2 possessives

We use apostrophes before or after possessive -s (see 439).

the girl's father   Charles's wife   my parents' house

Possessive determiners and pronouns (e.g. yours, its) do not have apostrophes.

This money is yours. (NOT ... your's)

The cat had not had its food yet. (NOT ... it's food ... )

Whose house did she stay in? (NOT Who's ... )

3 special plurals

Words which do not usually have plurals sometimes have an apostrophe when a plural form is written.

It is a nice idea, but there are a lot of if's.

Apostrophes are used in the plurals of letters, and sometimes of numbers and abbreviations.

He writes b's instead of d's.

It was in the early 1960's. (More usually: ... 1960s.)

I know two MP's personally. (More usually: ... MPs.)

It is not correct to put apostrophes in normal plurals.

JEANS - HALF PRICE (NOT JEAN'S ... )

480 questions (1): basic rules

These rules apply to most written and spoken questions. For 'declarative questions' like This is your car? (in which the subject comes before the verb), see 481.

1 auxiliary verb before subject: Have you ... ?

In a question, an auxiliary verb normally comes before the subject.

When is Oliver leaving? (NOT When Oliver is leaving?)

Have you received my letter of June 17? (NOT You have received ...?)

Why are you laughing? (NOT Why you are laughing?)

What are all those people looking at? (NOT What all those people are looking at?)

How much does the room cost? (NOT How much the room costs?)

2 do: Do you like ... ?

If there is no other auxiliary verb, we use do, does or did to form a question.

Do you like Mozart? (NOT Like you Mozart?)

What does 'periphrastic' mean? (NOT What means 'periphrastic'?)

Did you wash the car today?

3 do not used with other auxiliaries

Do is not used together with other auxiliary verbs or with be.

Can you tell me the time? (NOT Do you can tell me the time?)

Have you seen John? (NOT Do you have seen John?)

Are you ready?

4 infinitive after do: What does he want?

After do, we use the infinitive (without to).

What does the boss want? (NOT What does the boss wants?)

Did you go climbing last weekend? (NOT Did you went ... ? OR Did you to go ... ?)

5 only auxiliary verb before subject

Only the auxiliary verb goes before the subject, not the whole of the verb.

Is your mother coming tomorrow? (NOT Is coming your mother tomorrow?)

Is your daughter having a lesson today? (NOT Is having your daughter ... ?)

When was your reservation made? (NOT When was made your reservation?)

This happens even if the subject is very long.

Where are the President and his family staying? (NOT Where are staying the President ... ?)

6 Who phoned? / Who did you phone?

When who, which, what or whose is the subject (or part of the subject), do is not normally used. Compare:

- Who phoned? (Who is the subject.)

Who did you phone? (Who is the object.)

- What happened? (What is the subject.)

What did she say? (What is the object.)

More examples:

Which costs more - the blue one or the grey one? (NOT Which does cost more ... ?)

Which type of battery lasts longest? (NOT Which type of battery does last longest?)

How many people work in your office? (NOT How many people do work ... ?)

But do can be used after a subject question word for emphasis, to insist on an answer.

Well, tell us - what did happen when your father found you?

So who did marry the Princess in the end?

7 indirect questions: Tell me when you are leaving

In an indirect question, we do not put an auxiliary before the subject, and we do not use a question mark. For details, see 276.

Tell me when you are leaving. (NOT Tell me when are you leaving?)

8 prepositions: What are you talking about?

Prepositions often come at the end of wh-questions, separated from their objects. (For details, see 452.)

What are you talking about? (NOT About what are you talking?)

Who did you buy the ticket from?

What did you clean the floor with?

For negative questions, see 368.

For ellipsis in questions (e.g. Seen John? Coming tonight?), see 179.

481 questions (2): declarative questions

In spoken questions, we do not always use 'interrogative' word order.

You're working late tonight?

These 'declarative questions' are often used when the speaker thinks he/she knows or has understood something, but wants to make sure or express surprise. A rising intonation is common.

This is your car? (= I suppose this is your car, isn't it?)

That's the boss? I thought he was the cleaner.

We're going to Hull for our holidays. ~ You're going to Hull?

This word order is not normally possible after a question word.

Where are you going? (NOT Where you are going?)

482 questions (3): rhetorical questions

1 questions that do not expect an answer

Questions do not always ask for information. In many languages, a question with an obvious answer can be used simply as a way of drawing attention to something. Questions of this kind are called 'rhetorical questions'.

Do you know what time it is? (= You're late.)

Who's a lovely baby? (= You're a lovely baby.)

I can't find my coat. ~ What's this, then? (= Here it is, stupid.)

Very often, a rhetorical question draws attention to a negative situation - the answer is obviously No, or there is no answer to the question.

What's the use of asking her? (= It's no use asking her.)

How do you expect me to find milk on a Sunday night? Where am I going to find a shop open? (= You can't reasonably expect ... There aren't any shops open.)

Where's my money? (= You haven't paid me.)

I can run faster than you. ~ Who cares? (= Nobody cares.)

Are we going to let them do this to us? (= We aren't ... )

Have you lost your tongue? (= Why don't you say anything?)

What do you think you're doing? (= You can't justify what you're doing.)

Who do you think you are? (= You aren't as important as your behaviour suggests.)

Why don't you take a taxi? (= There's no reason not to.)

2 Why/How should ... ?

Why should ... ? can be used aggressively to reject suggestions, requests and instructions.

Ann's very unhappy. ~ Why should I care?

Could your wife help us in the office tomorrow? ~ Why should she? She doesn't work for you.

How should/would I know? is an aggressive reply to a question.

What time does the film start?~ How should I know?

3 negative yes/no questions

Negative yes/no questions (see 368) often suggest that the speaker wants the answer Yes, or some other positive response.

Haven't I done enough for you? (= I have done enough for you.)

Didn't I tell you it would rain? (= I told you ... )

Don't touch that! ~ Why shouldn't I? (= I have a perfect right to.)

483 questions (4): echo questions

1 You're getting married?

To question what has been said, a speaker may simply repeat ('echo') what he/she has heard. A rising intonation is common.

I'm getting married. ~ You're getting married?

2 Take a look at what?

To question one part of a sentence, we can repeat the rest of the sentence, and put a stressed question word in place of the part we are asking about.

Just take a look at that. ~ Take a look at what?

She's invited thirteen people to dinner. ~ She's invited how many?

We're going to Tierra del Fuego on holiday. ~ You're going where?

I've broken the fettle gauge. ~ You've broken the what?

To question a verb, or the part of a sentence beginning with the verb, do what is used.

She set fire to the garage. ~ She did what (to the garage)?

3 repeating a question

A speaker may question a question, by repeating it with a rising intonation. Note that we use normal question structures with inverted word order, not indirect question structures, in this case.

Where are you going? ~ Where am I going? Home. (NOT ... Where I'm going? ... )

What does he want? ~ What does he want? Money, as usual. (NOT ... What he wants? ... )

Are you tired? ~ Am I tired? Of course not. (NOT ... Whether I'm tired? .. )

Do squirrels eat insects? ~ Do squirrels eat insects? I'm not sure. (NOT ... Whether squirrels eat insects? ... )

484 questions (5): reply questions (Was it? Did you?)

Short questions are often used in conversation to show that the listener is paying attention and interested. They are constructed with auxiliary verb + pronoun, like question tags (see 487).

It was a terrible party. ~ Was it? ~ Yes ...

Note that these questions do not ask for information - they simply show that the listener is reacting to what has been said. More examples:

We had a lovely holiday. ~ Did you? ~ Yes, we went ...

I've got a headache. ~ Have you, dear? I'll get you an aspirin.

John likes that girl next door. ~ Oh, does he?

I don't understand. ~ Don't you? I'm sorry.

Negative questions in reply to affirmative statements express emphatic agreement (like negative-question exclamations - see 195.4).

It was a lovely concert. ~ Yes, wasn't it? I did enjoy it.

She's put on a lot of weight .. ~ Yes, hasn't she?

485 questions (6): question-word clauses

1 question-word clauses as objects

Clauses beginning with question words can refer both to questions and to the answers to questions. They often act as the objects of verbs - for example, when questions and their answers are reported (see 276).

I asked who wanted to come.

She wondered why he wasn't wearing a coat.

We need to decide where Ann's going to sleep.

He told me when he was arriving, but I've forgotten.

She explained what the problem was.

2 other uses

Question-word clauses can act not only as objects, but also as subjects, complements or adverbials. This structure is often rather informal (especially with how-clauses - see 252).

Who you invite is your business.   A hot bath is what I need.

Where we stay doesn't matter.   This is how much I've done.

I'm surprised at how fast she can run.

You can eat it how you like. (very informal)

The 'preparatory it' structure is often used with subject clauses (see 446).

It's your business who you invite.  It doesn't matter where we stay.

Question-word clauses can give more information about nouns. In this case they are called 'relative clauses' (see 494-498 for details).

There's that man who threw stones at your dog.

The place where Mary works has just had a fire.

486 questions (7): that-clauses

A wh-question usually refers to the main clause which starts with the question word. However, questions can also refer to subordinate that-clauses after verbs like wish, think or say.

Who do you wish (that) you'd married, then?

How long do you think (that) we should wait?

What did you say (that) you wanted for Christmas?

That is usually dropped; it must be dropped when the question word refers to the subject of the subordinate clause.

Who do you think is outside? (NOT Who do you think that is outside?)

What do you suppose will happen now? (NOT What do you suppose that will happen now?)

487 question tags (1): basic information

1 What are question tags?

'Question tags' are the small questions that often come at the ends of sentences in speech, and sometimes in informal writing.

The film wasn't very good, was it?

Negatives are usually contracted. Full forms are possible in formal speech.

That's the postman, isn't it?   You take sugar in tea, don't you?

They promised to repay us within six months, did they not? (formal)

Question tags can be used to check whether something is true, or to ask for agreement.

2 negative after affirmative, and vice versa

Question tags are used after affirmative and negative sentences, but not after questions.

You're the new secretary, aren't you?

You're not the new secretary, are you?

(BUT NOT Are you the new secretary, aren't you?)

To check information or ask for agreement, we most often put negative tags after affirmative sentences, and non-negative tags after negative sentences.

  +                         -  |  |   -                          +
It's cold, isn't it? |  | It's not warm, is it?

For 'same-way' tags, see 488.7

3 auxiliaries

If the main sentence has an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be), this is repeated in the question tag.

         ↓-------------------------------↑

Sally can speak French, can't she?

                 ↓----------------↑

The meeting's at ten, isn't it?

         ↓-----------------------------------↑

You didn't speak to Luke, did you?

           ↓-------------------------------------↑

You wouldn't like a puppy, would you?

If the main sentence has no auxiliary, the question tag has do.

        ↓---------------------↑

You like oysters, don't you?

           ↓--------------------------------↑

Harry gave you a cheque, didn't he?

4 negative words

Non-negative tags are used after sentences containing negative words like never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely and little.

You never say what you're thinking, do you? (NOT ... don't you?)

It's no good, is it? (NOT ... isn't it?)

It's hardly rained at all this summer, has it?

There's little we can do about it, is there?

5 meaning and intonation

In speech, we can show the exact meaning of a question tag by the intonation. If the tag is a real question - if we really want to know something and are not sure of the answer - we use a rising intonation: the voice goes up.

                                           ↗

The meeting's at four o'clock, isn't it?

If the tag is not a real question - if we are sure of the answer - we use a falling intonation: the voice goes down.

                             ↘

It's a beautiful day, isn't it?

In writing, the exact meaning of a question tag is normally clear from the context.

6 requests

We often ask for help or information by using the structure negative statement + question tag.

You couldn't lend me a pound, could you?

You haven't seen my watch anywhere, have you?

For details of other kinds of tags, see 514.

488 question tags (2): advanced points

1 aren't I?

The question tag for I am is aren't I?

I'm late, aren't I?

2 imperatives

After imperatives, won't you? can be used to invite people politely to do things (especially in British English).

Come in, won't you?

Will/would/can/could you? can all be used to tell or ask people to do things.

Give me a hand, will you?   Open a window, would you?

Can't you expresses impatience.

Shut up, can't you?

After a negative imperative, we use will you?

Don't forget, will you?

3 let's

After let's ... (in suggestions etc, see 323), we use shall we?

Let's have a party, shall we?

4 there

There can be a subject in question tags.

There's something wrong, isn't there?

There weren't any problems, were there?

When there's introduces a plural subject (see 532.4), the tag is aren't there?

There's some more chairs upstairs, aren't there?

5 it and they with nothing, nobody, somebody etc

We use it in question tags to refer to nothing and everything.

Nothing can happen, can it?

We use they (see 528) to refer to nobody, somebody and everybody (and no one etc).

Nobody phoned, did they?

Somebody wanted a drink, didn't they? Who was it?

6 non-auxiliary have

After non-auxiliary have (referring to states), question tags with have and do are often both possible. (Do is normal in American English.)

Your father has a bad back, hasn't/doesn't he?

For more about the use of do with have, see 236-239.

7 'same-way' question tags: You're getting married, are you?

Non-negative question tags are quite common after affirmative sentences.

These are often used as responses to something that has been said, like 'reply questions' (see 484): the speaker repeats what he/she has just heard or learnt, and uses the tag to express interest, surprise, concern or some other reaction.

So you're getting married, are you? How nice!

So she thinks she's going to become a doctor, does she? Well, well.

You think you're funny, do you?

'Same-way' tags can also be used to ask questions. In this structure, we use the main sentence to make a guess, and then ask (in the tag) if it was correct.

Your mother's at home, is she?   This is the last bus, is it?

You can eat shellfish, can you?

I'll ... shall I? can be used to make offers.

I'll hold that for you, shall I?

Negative 'same-way' tags are occasionally heard; they usually sound aggressive.

I see. You don't like my cooking, don't you?

8 ellipsis: Nice day, isn't it?

In sentences with question tags, it is quite common to leave out pronoun subjects and auxiliary verbs. (This is called 'ellipsis'. For details, see 179.)

(It's a) nice day, isn't it?   (She was) talking to my husband, was she?

In very informal speech, a question tag can sometimes be used after a question with ellipsis.

Have a good time, did you?   Your mother at home, is she?

John be here tomorrow, will he?

For details of other kinds of tags, see 514.

9 I (don't) think

Note the use of question tags in sentences beginning with I (don't) think and similar expressions (see 179).

I think he's Norwegian, isn't he? (NOT don't I?)

I don't think it will rain, will it? (NOT do I?)

I suppose you're hungry, aren't you?

489 quite

1 two meanings

Quite has two meanings. Compare:

It's quite good, but it could be better. (= It's OK, not bad.)

It's quite impossible. (= It's completely impossible.)

Good is a 'gradable' adjective: things can be more or less good. With gradable words, quite usually means something like 'fairly' or 'rather' (see 199) in affirmative sentences. Impossible is non-gradable: things are either impossible or not; but they cannot be more or less impossible. With non-gradable words, quite means 'completely'. Compare:

- I'm quite tired, but I can walk a bit further.

I'm quite exhausted - I couldn't walk another step.

- It's quite surprising. (similar to fairly surprising)

It's quite amazing. (= absolutely amazing)

- He speaks French quite well, but he's got a strong English accent.

He speaks French quite perfectly.

- I quite like her, but she's not one of my closest friends.

Have you quite finished? (= Have you completely finished?)

In American English quite with gradable adjectives often means something like 'very', not 'fairly/rather'.

2 word order with nouns

Quite can be used with a/an + noun. It normally comes before a/an if there is a gradable adjective or no adjective.

It's quite a nice day.

We watched quite an interesting film last night.

She's quite a woman!   The party was quite a success.

With non-gradable adjectives, quite normally comes after a/an in BrE.

It was a quite perfect day. (AmE It was quite a perfect day.)

Quite is sometimes used before the to mean 'exactly', 'completely'.

He's going quite the wrong way.   quite the opposite

3 comparisons

Quite is not used directly before comparatives.

She's rather / much / a bit older than me. (BUT NOT She's quite older ... )

But we use quite better to mean 'completely recovered' (from an illness). 

Quite similar means 'fairly/rather similar'; quite different means 'completely

different'.

4 quite a bit/few/lot etc

Quite a bit and quite a few (informal) mean almost the same as quite a lot.

We're having quite a bit of trouble with the kids just now.

We thought nobody would be there, but actually quite a few people came.

5 not quite

Not quite means 'not completely' or 'not exactly'. It can be used before adjectives, adverbs, verbs and nouns, including nouns with the.

I'm not quite ready - won't be a minute.

She didn't run quite fast enough for a record.

I don't quite agree.   That's not quite the colour I wanted.

490 rather: adverb of degree (rather good, etc)

1 meaning

Rather can be used as an adverb of degree. The meaning is similar to 'quite' or 'fairly', but more emphatic (see 199). This use of rather is less common in American English.

The film was rather good.   Some people rather like being miserable.

It's rather later than I thought.   I rather think we're going to lose.

Rather often suggests 'more than is usual', 'more than was expected', 'more than is wanted' and similar ideas.

How was the film? ~ Rather good - I was surprised.

She sings rather well - people often think she's a professional.

It's rather warm in here. Let's open a window.

2 word order with articles

Rather generally comes before articles, but can also come after a/an if there is an adjective.

That's rather the impression I wanted to give.

He's rather a fool.

Jane's had rather a good idea. (OR Jane's had a rather good idea.)

3 plural nouns

Rather is not normally used before a plural noun with no adjective.

(NOT They're rather fools.)

491 rather: preference

1 rather than

This expression is normally used in 'parallel' structures: for example with two adjectives, adverbs, nouns, infinitives or -ing forms.

I'd call her hair chestnut rather than brown.

I'd prefer to go in August rather than in July.

We ought to invest in machinery rather than buildings.

I prefer starting early rather than leaving things to the last minute.

When the main clause has a to-infinitive, rather than is usually followed by an infinitive without to or an -ing form.

I decided to write rather than phone/phoning.

Rather than use/using the last of my cash, I decided to write a cheque.

2 would rather

This expression means 'would prefer to', and is followed by the infinitive without to. We often use the contraction 'd rather.

Would you rather stay here or go home?

How about a drink? ~ I'd rather have something to eat.

The negative is would rather not.

I'd rather not go out tonight. (NOT I wouldn't rather ... )

Note that would rather like does not mean 'would prefer'; in this expression rather means 'quite', and does not suggest preference. Compare:

I'd rather like a cup of coffee. (= I'd quite like ... )

~ Oh, would you? I'd rather have a glass of beer. (= I'd prefer ... )

3 would rather: past tense with present or future meaning

We can use would rather to say that a person would prefer somebody to do something. We use a special structure with a past tense.

would rather + subject + past tense

I'd rather you went home now.

Tomorrow's difficult. I'd rather you came next weekend.

My wife would rather we didn't see each other any more.

Shall I open a window? ~ I'd rather you didn't.

A present tense or present subjunctive is possible (e.g. I'd rather he goes / he go home now), but unusual. To talk about past actions, a past perfect tense is possible.

I'd rather you hadn't done that.

However, this kind of idea is usually expressed with I wish (see 630).

I wish you hadn't done that.

In older English, had rather was used in the same way as would rather. This

structure is still found in grammars, but it is not normally used.

For other structures where a past tense has a present or future meaning, see 426.

4 or rather

People often use or rather to correct themselves.

He's a psychologist - or rather, a psychoanalyst. (NOT ... or better, a psychoanalyst. )

5 would rather and had better

Note that would rather (= would prefer) is not the same as had better (= should) - see 230. Compare:

I suppose I'd better clean the windows, but I'd rather watch TV.

492 reason

The preposition for is used both before and after reason.

What's the real reason for your depression? (NOT ... reason of your depression?)

I need to talk to you for two reasons.

Reason can be followed by a clause beginning why ... or that ....

The reason why I came here was to be with my family.

Do you know the reason that they're closing the factory?

In an informal style, why/that is often left out.

The reason she doesn't like me is that I make her nervous.

Some people consider it incorrect to use a because-clause as a complement after reason (as in Sorry I'm late - the reason is because I overslept.)

493 reflexive pronouns

1 What are reflexive pronouns?

Reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

2 use: I cut myself shaving

A common use of reflexive pronouns is to talk about actions where the subject and object are the same person.

I cut myself shaving this morning. (NOT I cut me ... )

We got out of the water and dried ourselves. (NOT ... dried us.)

I'm going to the shops to get myself some tennis shoes.

Talking to oneself is the first sign of madness.

Reflexive pronouns can also refer to possessives and objects.

His letters are all about himself.

I'm going to tell her a few facts about herself.

I love you for yourself, not for your money.

3 after prepositions: She took her dog with her

After prepositions of place, we often use a personal pronoun (me, you etc) if the meaning is clear without using a reflexive. Compare:

She took her dog with her. (NOT ... with herself. She could hardly take her dog with somebody else.)

She's very pleased with herself. (She could be pleased with somebody else.)

Other examples:

Close the door after you.   He was pulling a small cart behind him.

4 emphatic use: Do it yourself

We can use reflexives as emphasisers, to mean 'that person/thing and nobody/nothing else'.

It's quicker if you do it yourself.   The manageress spoke to me herself.

The house itself is nice, but the garden's very small.

I'll go and see the President himself if I have to.

5 reflexives used instead of personal pronouns

Reflexives are sometimes used instead of personal pronouns after as, like, but (for) and except (for).

These shoes are designed for heavy runners like yourself. (OR ... like you.)

Everybody was early except myself. (OR ... except me.)

Reflexives can also be used instead of personal pronouns in co-ordinated noun phrases.

There will be four of us at dinner: Robert, Alison, Jenny and myself. (OR ... and I/me.)

People often feel that these uses are fussy - too exact and unnecessary.

6 by oneself

By myself/yourself etc means 'alone, without company' or 'without help'.

I often like to spend time by myself.

Do you need help? ~ No, thanks. I can do it by myself.

7 -selves and each other / one another

Note the difference between -selves and each other / one another (see 171).

They talk to themselves a lot. (Each of them talks to him/herself.)

They talk to each other a lot. (Each of them talks to the other.)

8 own

There are no possessive reflexives. Instead, we use my own, your own etc.

I always type my own letters. (NOT ... myself's letters.)

The children have both got their own rooms.

9 reflexives not used

Certain verbs (e.g. wash, dress, shave) have reflexive pronouns in some languages but not in English.

Do you shave on Sundays? (NOT Do you shave yourself on Sundays?)

However, reflexives can be used if it is necessary to make it clear who does the action.

She's old enough to dress herself now.

The barber shaves all the people in the town who don't shave themselves.

So does he shave himself or not?

Some other verbs which do not normally have reflexive pronouns:

Suddenly the door opened. (NOT Suddenly the door opened itself.)

His book's selling well. (NOT His book's selling itself well.)

Try to concentrate. (NOT Try to concentrate yourself.)

I feel strange. (NOT I feel myself strange.)

Hurry! (NOT Hurry yourself!)

For more about structures like The door opened and His book's selling well, see 609.

494 relatives (1): basic information

1 relative clauses: the people who live next door

Clauses beginning with question words (e.g. who, which, where) are often used to modify nouns and some pronouns - to identify people and things, or to give more information about them. Clauses used like this are called 'relative clauses'.

Do you know the people who live next door?

Those who want tickets can get them from the office.

There's a programme tonight which you might like.

He lives in a village where there are no shops.

2 relative pronouns: who, whom, which

When who, whom and which introduce relative clauses, they are called 'relative pronouns'. Who(m) refers to people and which to things.

What's the name of the tall man who just came in? (NOT ... the tall man which ...)

It's a book which will interest children of all ages. (NOT ... a book who ... )

3 subject and object

Who and which can be the subjects of verbs in relative clauses.

I like people who smile a lot.

This is the key which opens the garage.

Who(m) and which can also be the objects of verbs in relative clauses. Whom is unusual in an informal style (see 623).

Do you remember the people who we met in Italy? (Who is the object of met.)

I forget most of the films which I see. (Which is the object of see.)

4 that = who/which

We often use that instead of who or which, especially in an informal style.

I like people that smile a lot.

This is the key that opens the garage.

Do you remember the people that we met in Italy?

I forget most of the films that I see.

5 all that, only ... that etc

That is especially common after quantifiers like all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing), no(thing), none, little, few, much, only, and after superlatives.

Is this all that's left? (More natural than ... all which is left?)

Have you got anything that belongs to me? (More natural than ... anything which ... )

The only thing that matters is to find our way home.

I hope the little that I've done has been useful.

It's the best film that's ever been made about madness.

Note that what (see 497) cannot be used in these cases.

All that you say is certainly true. (NOT All what you say ... )

6 leaving out object pronouns: the people we met

Object pronouns can often be left out.

Do you remember the people we met in Italy?

I forget most of the films I see.   All I want is your happiness.

This is not possible in all relative clauses: see 495.

7 one subject or object is enough

As subjects or objects, who(m), which and that replace words like she, him or it: one subject or object in a relative clause is enough. Compare:

- He's got a new girlfriend. She works in a garage.

He's got a new girlfriend who works in a garage. (NOT ... who she works in a garage.)

- This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year.

This is Mr Rogers, whom you met last year. (NOT ... whom you met him last year.)

Here's an article. It might interest you.

Here's an article which might interest you. (NOT ... which it might interest you.)

I've found the car keys. You were looking for them.

I've found the car keys that you were looking for. (NOT ... that you were looking for them.)

8 whose: a girl whose hair ...

Whose is a possessive relative pronoun, used as a determiner before nouns. It replaces his/her/its. For more details, see 496.

I saw a girl whose hair came down to her waist. (NOT ... whose her hair came down ... )

9 which referring to a whole clause

Which can refer not only to a noun, but also to the whole of a previous clause.

Note that what cannot be used in this way.

He got married again a year later, which surprised everybody. (NOT ... what surprised everybody.)

She cycled from London to Glasgow, which is pretty good for a woman of 75. (NOT She cycled ... , what is pretty good ... )

10 relative when, where and why

When and where can introduce relative clauses after nouns referring to time and place. They are used in the same way as preposition + which.

I'll never forget the day when I first met you. (= ... the day on which ... )

Do you know a shop where I can find sandals? (= ... a shop at which ... )

Why is used in a similar way after reason.

Do you know the reason why she doesn't like me? (= ... the reason for which ... )

495 relatives (2): identifying and non-identifying clauses

1 two kinds of relative clause

Some relative clauses identify or classify nouns: they tell us which person or thing, or which kind of person or thing, is meant. (In grammars, these are called 'identifying', 'defining' or 'restrictive' relative clauses.)

What's the name of the tall man who just came in?

People who take physical exercise live longer.

Who owns the car which is parked outside?

Have you got something that will get ink out of a carpet?

Other relative clauses do not identify or classify; they simply tell us more about a person or thing that is already identified. (In grammars, these are called 'non-identifying', 'non-defining' or 'non-restrictive' relative clauses.)

This is Ms Rogers, who's joining the firm next week.

In 1908 Ford developed his Model T car, which sold for $500.

There are several grammatical differences between the two kinds of relative clause. There are also stylistic differences: non-identifying clauses are generally more formal, and are less frequent in informal speech.

2 pronunciation and punctuation

Identifying relative clauses usually follow immediately after the nouns that they modify, without a break: they are not separated by pauses or intonation movements in speech, or by commas in writing. (This is because the noun would be incomplete without the relative clause, and the sentence would make no sense or have a different meaning.) Non-identifying clauses are normally separated by pauses and/or intonation breaks and commas. Compare:

- The woman who does my hair has moved to another hairdresser's.

Dorothy, who does my hair, has moved to another hairdresser's.

- She married a man that she met on a bus.

She married a very nice young architect from Belfast, whom she met on a bus.

Note how the identifying clauses cannot easily be left out.

The woman has moved to another hairdresser's. (Which woman?)

She married a man. (!)

When a non-identifying clause does not come at the end of a sentence, two commas are necessary.

Dorothy, who does my hair, has moved ... (NOT Dorothy, who does my hair has moved ... )

3 use of that

That is common as a relative pronoun in identifying clauses. In non-identifying clauses, that is unusual. Compare:

- Have you got a book which/that is really easy to read?

I lent him 'The Old Man and the Sea', which is really easy to read. (NOT ... 'The Old Man and the Sea', that is really easy to read.)

- Where's the girl who/that sells the tickets?

This is Naomi, who sells the tickets. (NOT This is Naomi, that sells the tickets.)

4 leaving out object pronouns

In identifying relative clauses, we often leave out object pronouns, especially in an informal style. In non-identifying clauses this is not possible. Compare:

- I feel sorry for the man she married.

She met my brother, whom she later married. (NOT She met my brother, she later married.)

- Did you like the wine we drank last night?

I poured him a glass of wine, which he drank at once. (NOT I poured him a glass of wine, he drank at once.)

496 relatives (3): whose

1 relative possessive

Whose is a relative possessive word, used as a determiner before nouns in the same way as his, her, its or their. It can refer back to people or things. In a relative clause, whose + noun can be the subject, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

I saw a girl whose beauty took my breath away. (subject)

It was a meeting whose purpose I did not understand. (object)

Michel Croz, with whose help Whymper climbed the Matterhorn, was one of the first professional guides. (object of preposition)

I went to see my friends the Forrests, whose children I used to look after when they were small. (object of preposition)

Whose can be used in both identifying and non-identifying clauses.

2 things: of which; that ... of

Instead of whose, we can use of which or that ... of (less formal) to refer to things, and these are sometimes preferred. The most common word order is noun + of which or that ... of, but of which ... + noun is also possible.

Compare the following four ways of expressing the same idea.

He's written a book whose name I've forgotten.

He's written a book the name of which I've forgotten.

He's written a book that I've forgotten the name of.

He's written a book of which I've forgotten the name.

We do not normally use noun + of whom in a possessive sense to talk about people.

a man whose name I've forgotten (NOT a man of whom I've forgotten the name.)

3 only used as a determiner

Relative whose is only used as a possessive determiner, before a noun. In other cases we use of which/ whom or that ... of.

He's married to a singer of whom you may have heard. OR ... that you may have heard of. (NOT ... a singer whose you may have heard.)

4 formality

Sentences with whose are generally felt to be rather heavy and formal; in an informal style other structures are often preferred. With (see 631) is a common way of expressing possessive ideas, and is usually more natural than whose in descriptions.

I've got some friends with a house that looks over a river. (Less formal than ... whose house looks over a river.)

You know that girl with a brother who drives lorries? (Less formal than ... whose brother drives lorries?)

She's married to the man over there with the enormous ears. (More natural than ... the man over there whose ears are enormous.)

For whose in questions, see 626.

497 relatives (4): what

1 meaning and use: the thing(s) which

What does not refer to a noun that comes before it. It acts as noun + relative pronoun together, and means 'the thing(s) which'. Clauses beginning with what can act as subjects, objects, or complements after be.

What she said made me angry. (subject of made)

I hope you're going to give me what I need. (object of give)

This is exactly what I wanted. (complement)

For singular and plural verbs after what (e.g. What we need most is/are books), see 529.

2 what not used

What is only used to mean 'the thing(s) which'. It cannot be used as an ordinary relative pronoun after a noun or pronoun.

We haven't got everything that you ordered. (NOT ... everything what ... )

The only thing that keeps me awake is coffee. (NOT The only thing what ... )

We use which, not what, to refer to a whole clause that comes before (see 494.9).

Sally married Joe, which made Paul very unhappy. (NOT ... what made ... )

3 what as a determiner

What can also be used as a determiner with a noun.

What money he has comes from his family. (= The money that he has ... )

I'll give you what help I can. (= ... any help that I can.)

498 relatives (5): advanced points

1 double use of relative pronouns

Note that relative pronouns have a double use: they act as subjects or objects inside relative clauses, and at the same time they connect relative clauses to nouns or pronouns in other clauses - rather like conjunctions.

2 relative pronouns as general-purpose connectors

In non-identifying clauses, the pronouns who and which sometimes act as general-purpose connecting words, rather like and + pronoun.

She passed the letter to Moriarty, who passed it on to me. (= ... and he passed it on ... )

I dropped the saucepan, which knocked over the eggs, which went all over the floor. (= ... and it knocked ... and they went ... )

I do a lot of walking, which keeps me fit. (= ... and this keeps me fit.)

3 who and whom

Who can be used as an object in identifying clauses in an informal style. Whom is more formal.

The woman who I marry will have a good sense of humour. (More formal: The woman whom I marry ... )

In non-identifying clauses, who is less common as an object, though it is sometimes used in an informal style.

In that year he met Rachel, whom he was later to marry. (OR ... Rachel, who he was later to marry. - informal)

4 that for people

That is often used in identifying relative clauses instead of who/whom/which (see 494.4). That is most common as an object, or as a subject instead of which. That can be used as a subject instead of who, but this is quite informal. Compare:

the people that I invited (normal)   the books that I lent you (normal)

the bus that crashed (normal)

the people that live next door (informal; the people who ... is preferred in a less informal style)

5 which as determiner; in which case

Which can be used as a determiner in relative clauses, with a general noun which repeats the meaning of what came before. This structure is rather formal, and is mainly used after prepositions, especially in some fixed phrases like in which case and at which point.

She may be late, in which case we ought to wait for her.

He lost his temper, at which point I decided to go home.

He was appointed Lord Chancellor, in which post he spent the rest of his life.

He spoke in Greek, which language I could only follow with difficulty.

6 when, where etc replaced by that or dropped

After common nouns referring to time, when is often replaced by that or dropped in an informal style.

Come and see us any time (that) you're in town.

I'll never forget the day (that) we met.

That was the year (that) I first went abroad.

The same thing happens with where after somewhere, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere and place (but not after other words).

Have you got somewhere (that) I can lie down for an hour?

We need a place (that) we can stay for a few days. (BUT NOT We need a house we can stay for a few days.)

After way, in which can be replaced by that or dropped in an informal style.

I didn't like the way (that) she spoke to me.

Do you know a way (that) you can earn money without working?

The same thing happens with why after reason.

The reason (that) you're so bad-tempered is that you're hungry.

For more about place, see 431. For way, see 615. For reason, see 492.

7 position of prepositions

Prepositions can come either before relative pronouns (more formal) or at the ends of relative clauses (more informal). Compare:

- He was respected by the people with whom he worked. (formal)

He was respected by the people (that) he worked with. (informal)

- This is the room in which I was born. (formal)

This is the room (that) I was born in. (informal)

Who and that are not used after prepositions .

... the people with whom he worked. (NOT ... the people with who/that he worked.)

For more about prepositions at the ends of clauses, see 452.

8 some of whom, none of which etc

In non-identifying clauses, quantifying determiners (e.g. some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many and few) can be used with of whom, of which and of whose. The determiner most often comes before of which/whom/whose, but can sometimes come after it in a very formal style.

They picked up five boat-loads of refugees, some of whom had been at sea for several months. (OR ... of whom some ... )

We've tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is completely waterproof (OR ... of which none ... )

They've got eight children, all of whom are studying music. (OR ... of whom all are studying ... )

She had a teddy-bear, both of whose eyes were missing.

This structure is also possible with other expressions of quantity, with superlatives, with first, second etc, and with last.

a number of whom   three of which   half of which

the majority of whom   the youngest of whom

9 whatever, whoever etc

Whatever can be used rather like what, as noun + relative pronoun together.

Take whatever you want. (= ... anything that you want.)

Other words that can be used like this are whoever, whichever, where, wherever, when, whenever and how.

This is for whoever wants it. (= ... any person that wants it.)

I often think about where I met you. (= ... the place where )

We've bought a cottage in the country for when we retire. (= the time when ... )

Whenever you want to come is fine with me. (= Any day that ... )

Look at how he treats me. (= ... the way in which ... )

For details of the use of whoever, whatever and other words ending in -ever, see 625.

For more about how-clauses, see 252.

10 reduced relative clauses: the girl dancing

A participle is often used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb.

Who's the girl dancing with your brother? (= ... that is dancing with your brothers)

Anyone touching that wire will get a shock. (= ... who touches ... )

Half of the people invited to the party didn't turn up. (= ... who were invited ... )

I found him sitting at a table covered with papers. (= ... which was covered with papers.)

Reduced structures are also used with the adjectives available and possible.

Please send me all the tickets available. (= ... that are available.)

Tuesday's the only date possible.

11 separating a noun from its relative pronoun

Relative pronouns usually follow their nouns directly.

The idea which she put forward was interesting. (NOT The idea was interesting which she put forward.)

I rang up Mrs Spencer, who did our accounts. (NOT I rang Mrs Spencer up, who did our accounts.)

However, a descriptive phrase can sometimes separate a noun from its relative pronoun.

I rang up Mrs Spencer, the Manager's secretary, who did our accounts.

12 agreement of person

Most relative clauses have third-person reference; I who ... , you who ... and we who ... are unusual, though they sometimes occur in a very formal style.

You who pass by, tell them of us and say

For their tomorrow we gave our today.

(Allied war memorial at Kohima)

A different kind of first- and second-person reference is common in the relative clauses of cleft sentences (see 131). However, the verb is usually third-person, especially in an informal style.

It's me that's responsible for the organisation. (More formal: It is I who am responsible )

You're the one that knows where to go. (NOT the one that know ... )

13 relative + infinitive: a garden in which to play

When a noun or pronoun is the object of a following infinitive, a relative pronoun is not normally used.

I can't think of anybody to invite. (NOT ... anybody whom to invite.)

However, relative pronouns are possible with preposition structures.

We moved to the country so that the children would have a garden in which to play.

He was miserable unless he had neighbours with whom to quarrel.

This structure is rather formal, and it is more common to use infinitive + preposition without a relative pronoun .

. . . so that the children would have a garden to play in. (NOT ... which to play in.)

... unless he had neighbours to quarrel with. (NOT ... whom to quarrel with.)

14 relative clauses after indefinite noun phrases

The distinction between identifying and non-identifying clauses (see 495) is

most clear when they modify definite noun phrases like the car, this house, my father, Mrs Lewis. After indefinite noun phrases like a car, some nurses or friends, the distinction is less clear, and both kinds of clause are often possible with slight differences of emphasis.

He's got a new car that goes like a bomb. (OR He's got a new car, which goes like a bomb.)

We became friendly with some nurses that John had met in Paris. (OR We became friendly with some nurses, whom John had met in Paris.)

In general, identifying clauses are used when the information they give is felt to be centrally important to the overall message. When this is not so, non-identifying clauses are preferred.

15 somebody I know you'll like

It is often possible to combine relative clauses with indirect statements and

similar structures, e.g. I know/said/feel/hope/wish (that) ... , especially in an informal style. Expressions like I know, I said etc come after the position of the relative pronoun.

We're going to meet somebody (who/that) I know (that) you'll like.

It's a house (which/that) we feel (that) we might want to buy.

That's the man (who/that) I wish (that) I'd married.

Note that the conjunction (the second that) is usually dropped in this structure; it must be dropped if the relative pronoun is a subject.

This is the woman (who/that) Ann said could show us the church. (NOT This is the woman (who/that) Ann said that could show us ... )

In this structure, people sometimes use whom as a subject pronoun. This is not generally considered correct.

This is a letter from my father, whom we hope will be out of hospital soon. (More correct: ... who we hope will be out ... )

Relative clauses can also be combined with if-clauses in sentences like the following.

I am enclosing an application form, which I should be grateful if you would sign and return.

16 a car that I didn't know how fast it could go, etc

We do not usually combine a relative clause with an indirect question structure. However, this sometimes happens in informal speech.

I've just been to see an old friend that I'm not sure when I'm going to see again.

There's a pile of washing-up that I just don't know how I'm going to do.

There is no grammatically correct way of doing this when the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause. However, sentences like the following (with added pronouns) are also sometimes heard in informal speech. Some real examples:

I was driving a car that I didn't know how fast it could go.

It's ridiculous to sing songs that you don't know what they mean.

There's a control at the back that I don't understand how it works.

There's still one kid that I must find out whether she's coming to the party or not.

17 omission of subject

In a very informal style, a subject relative pronoun is sometimes dropped after there is.

There's a man at the door wants to talk to you.

18 double object

Occasionally a relative pronoun acts as the object of two verbs. This happens especially when a relative clause is followed by before ... ing, after ... ing or without ... ing.

We have water that it's best not to drink before boiling. (OR ... boiling it.)

I'm sending you a letter that I want you to destroy after reading. (OR ... after reading it.)

He was somebody that you could like without admiring. (OR ... admiring him.)

19 older English: who and that which

In older English, who could be used in a similar way to what, as noun + relative pronoun together, meaning 'the person who', 'whoever' or 'anybody who'. In modern English, this is very unusual.

Who steals my purse steals trash. (Shakespeare, Othello)

(Modern English: Whoever/Anybody who ... )

That which used to be used in the same way as what. This, too, is very unusual in modern English.

We have that which we need. (Modern English: We have what we need.)

499 remind

1 meaning: remind and remember

These two verbs are not the same. Reminding somebody means 'making somebody remember'. Compare:

- Remind me to pay the milkman. (NOT Remember me to pay ... )

I'm afraid I won't remember to pay the milkman.

- This sort of weather reminds me of my home. (NOT This sort of weather remembers me ... )

This sort of weather makes me remember my home.

But note the special use of remember in Remember me to your parents and similar sentences.

2 structures

After remind, we can use an infinitive structure (for actions) or a that-clause (for facts).

Please remind me to go to the post office. (NOT Please remind me of going ... )

I reminded him that we hadn't got any petrol left.

3 remind ... of ...

We use remind ... of to say that something/somebody makes us remember the past, or things that have been forgotten.

The smell of hay always reminds me of our old house in the country. (NOT ... reminds me our old house ... )

Remind me of your phone number.

We can also use remind ... of to talk about similarities.

She reminds me of her mother. (= She is like her mother.)

500 repetition

1 avoidance of repetition

In English, unnecessary repetition is usually considered to be a bad thing. Careful writers generally try not to use the same words and structures in successive clauses and sentences without a good reason; when expressions are repeated, it is often for deliberate emphasis or other stylistic purposes. Casual repetition is more common in informal language, but even in conversation people often sound monotonous or clumsy if they do not vary their sentence structure and vocabulary. Some kinds of repetition are actually ungrammatical in both writing and speech.

2 unnatural/ungrammatical repetition

When we refer again to a person or thing that has already been mentioned, we normally use a pronoun instead of repeating the original noun phrase. When the reference is very close to the original mention, repetition (unless there is a special reason for it) is usually not only unnatural, but ungrammatical.

What's Rachel doing here? ~ She wants to talk to you. (NOT ... Rachel wants to talk to you.)

We got that cat because the children wanted it. (NOT We got that cat because the children wanted that cat.)

Dad's just cut himself shaving. (NOT Dad's just cut Dad shaving.)

This kind of thing happens with other words besides nouns.

I don't smoke. ~ I do. (NOT ... I smoke.)

Do you know if the bank's open? ~ I think so. (NOT I think the bank's open.)

She's staying at the Royal Hotel, so we said we'd meet her there. (NOT ... so we said we'd meet her at the Royal Hotel.)

However, repetition is necessary and normal when alternatives are discussed.

Would you rather have potatoes or rice?~ Rice, please.

Shall we dance or go for a walk? ~ Let's go for a walk.

For more details, see 177-182 (ellipsis) and 539 (so).

3 duplicated subjects and objects

We do not very often repeat a subject or object with the same verb.

That wall needs painting. (More normal than That wall, it needs painting.)

I saw my uncle yesterday. (More normal than My uncle, I saw him yesterday.)

However, this kind of repetition can happen in informal speech, when people announce a topic and then make a sentence about it (see 513).

That friend of your mother's - he's on the phone.

Those bicycle wheels - I think we ought to put them in the garden shed.

And sometimes a pronoun subject is repeated by a noun phrase 'tag' after the sentence (see 514).

She's a clever girl, your Anne.

4 related verbs and nouns

We usually avoid putting related verbs and nouns together.

- We made wonderful plans. OR We planned wonderful things. (BUT NOT We planned wonderful plans.)

- She wrote an interesting paper. OR She did an interesting piece of writing. (BUT NOT She wrote an interesting piece of writing.)

There are some fixed expressions which are exceptions (e.g. to sing a song, to live a good life, to die a violent death).

5 Wonderful, isn't it? etc

There is a common kind of exchange in which one speaker gives his/her opinion of something, and the other speaker agrees by saying the same thing in other words which are at least as emphatic. Repetition is carefully avoided.

Glorious day. ~ Wonderful, isn't it? (NOT ... Glorious, isn't it?)

Terrible weather. ~ Dreadful.

United didn't play very well, then. ~ Bloody rubbish.

6 clumsy style

In writing, repetition is often considered clumsy even when it is not ungrammatical. Most of the repetitions in the following text would be avoided by a careful writer, by varying the structure and by careful use of synonyms (e.g. tried/attempted, summarise / describe briefly, forecast/predict).

In this report, I have tried to forecast likely developments over the next three years. In the first section, I have tried to summarise the results of the last two years, and I have tried to summarise the present situation. In the second section, I have tried to forecast the likely consequences of the present situation, and the consequences of the present financial policy.

7 deliberate repetition

Speakers and writers can of course repeat vocabulary and structures deliberately. This may be done for emphasis.

I'm very, very sorry.   I want every room cleaned - every single room.

Repeating somebody else's words may show surprise or disbelief.

I'm getting married. ~ You're getting married? Who to?

Structural repetition can show how ideas are similar or related (by using the same structure for the same kind of item).

First of all, I want to congratulate you all on the splendid results. Secondly, I want to give you some interesting news. And finally, I want to thank you all ...

8 literary examples

Here are two contrasting examples of repetition used deliberately for literary purposes. In the first, by John Steinbeck, structures and key vocabulary (especially nouns and verbs) are repeated and rhythmically balanced in order to create an impressive (or mock-impressive) effect - to make the story and characters sound striking and important.

This is the story of Danny and of Danny's friends and of Danny's house. It is a story of how these three became one thing, so that in Tortilla Flat if you speak of Danny's house you do not mean a structure of wood flaked with old whitewash, overgrown with an ancient untrimmed rose of Castile. No, when you speak of Danny's house you are understood to mean a unit of which the parts are men, from which came sweetness and joy, philanthropy, and, in the end, a mystic sorrow. For Danny's house was not unlike the Round Table, and Danny's friends were not unlike the knights of it. And this is the story of how the group came into being, of how it flourished and grew to be an organisation beautiful and wise. This story deals with the adventuring of Danny's friends, with the good they did, with their thoughts and their endeavors. In the end, this story tells how the talisman was lost and how the group disintegrated.

(John Steinbeck, Tortilla Flat)

In contrast, the following text, by Ernest Hemingway, uses a kind of style which 'good' writers would normally avoid, repeating pronouns and simple structures in an apparently monotonous way. Hemingway's purpose is to show the simplicity of his hero, an uneducated old fisherman, by using a style that is supposed to reflect the way he thinks and speaks.

He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his watch in the smacks or in the turtle boats. He had probably started to talk aloud, when alone, when the boy had left. But he did not remember.

(Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea)

501 [the] rest

The rest means 'what is left'. It is singular in form, and the is always used.

We only use three rooms. The rest of the house is empty.

To talk about what is left after something has been used up, eaten, destroyed etc, we often use other words.

There were remains of the meal all over the floor. (NOT There were rests ... )

Supper tonight is leftovers from lunch. (NOT ... rests... )

If you divide 100 by 12, the remainder is 4.

When the rest refers to a plural noun, it has a plural verb.

There are four chocolates for Penny, four for foe and the rest are mine. (NOT ... the rest is mine.)

502 road and street

1 the difference

A street is a road with houses on either side. We use street for roads in towns or villages, but not for country roads.

Cars can park on both sides of the street here.

Our village has only got one street.

Road is used for both town and country.

Cars can park on both sides of our road.

The road out of our village goes up a steep hill. (NOT The street out of our village ... )

2 street names: stress

In street names we normally stress the word Road, but the word before Street.

Marylebone 'Road   'Oxford Street

503 the same

1 the same (as)

We normally use the before same.

Give me the same again, please. (NOT Give me same again, please.)

In a comparison, we use the same (...) as.

You've got the same idea as me. (NOT ... my same idea.)

Her hair's the same colour as her mother's. (NOT ... the same colour like ... )

Note the expression the very same (= exactly the same).

Our birthdays are on the very same day.

2 other structures

Before a clause, the same ... that or the same ... who can be used.

That's the same man that/who asked me for money yesterday.

As is also possible before a clause, especially with a noun that is the object of the following verb.

He's wearing the same shirt that/as he had on yesterday.

As/who/that can be left out when they refer to the object of the following verb.

He's wearing the same shirt he had on yesterday.

Note also the expression do the same.

Why do you always try to do the same as your brother?

Joe and Carol went on a camping holiday, and we're going to do the same.

504 say and tell

1 meaning and use

Both say and tell are used with direct and indirect speech. (Say is more common than tell with direct speech.)

'Turn right,' I said. (OR 'Turn right,' I told him.)

She said that it was my last chance. (OR She told me that it was my last chance.)

Tell is only used to mean 'instruct' or 'inform'. So we do not use tell with greetings, exclamations or questions, for example.

He said, 'Good morning.' (BUT NOT He told them, 'Good morning.')

Mary said, 'What a nice idea.' (BUT NOT Mary told us, 'What a nice idea.')

'What's your problem?' I said. (BUT NOT 'What's your problem?' I told her.)

2 say: objects

Say is most often used without a personal object.

She said that she would be late. (NOT She said me ... )

If we want to put a personal object after say, we use to.

And I say to all the people of this great country ...

3 tell: objects

After tell, we usually say who is told.

She told me that she would be late. (NOT She told that ... )

Tell is used without a personal object in a few expressions. Common examples: tell the truth, tell a lie, tell a story/joke.

I don't think she's telling the truth. (NOT ... saying the truth.)

Note also the use of tell to mean 'distinguish', 'understand', as in tell the difference, tell the time.

He's seven years old and he still can't tell the time.

Tell is not used before objects like a word, a name, a sentence, a phrase.

Alice said a naughty word this morning. (NOT Alice told ... )

We do not usually use it after tell to refer to a fact.

What time's the meeting? ~ I'll tell you tomorrow. (NOT I'll tell you it tomorrow.)

4 infinitives

Tell can be used before object + infinitive, in the sense of 'order' or 'instruct'. Say cannot be used like this.

I told the children to go away. (NOT I said the children to go away.)

5 indirect questions

Neither tell nor say can introduce indirect questions (see 276).

Bill asked whether I wanted to see a film. (NOT Bill said whether I wanted to see a film. OR Bill told me whether ... )

But say and tell can introduce the answers to questions.

Has she said who's coming?

He only told one person where the money was.

For so after say and tell, see 540.

505 see

1 progressive forms not used

When see means 'perceive with one's eyes', progressive (,continuous') forms are not normally used.

Do you see the woman in blue over there? (NOT Are you seeing ... ?)

To talk about seeing something at the moment of speaking, can see is often used, especially in British English (see 125).

I can see an aeroplane. (AmE also I see an airplane.)

(NOT I am seeing an aeroplane.)

But we can say that somebody is seeing things if we mean that he/she is imagining things that are not there.

Look! A camel! ~ You're seeing things.

When see means 'understand' or 'have heard' (see 243), progressive forms are not normally used.

We've got a problem. ~ I see.

I see they're talking about putting up taxes again.

2 changes

Progressive forms can be used for changes in people's ability to see.

I'm seeing much better since I got those new glasses.

I'm seeing a lot of things in this book that I missed when I read it before.

3 'meet', 'arrange' etc

When see means 'meet', 'interview', 'talk to', 'go out with' or 'arrange', 'supervise', progressive forms are possible.

I'm seeing the dentist tomorrow.

Are you still seeing that Henderson woman?

John's down at the docks. He's seeing that our stuff gets loaded properly.

4 other meanings: 'consider' etc

See can mean 'consider', 'think', 'find out', 'discuss' or 'decide'.

Can I have a holiday next Monday? ~ I'll see.

What time shall we go to the gym? ~ Let me see. How about 5 o'clock?

Can you look out of the window and see if it's still snowing?

A preposition is necessary before an object in these cases.

We'll see about that tomorrow. (NOT We'll see that tomorrow.)

You'd better see about that with Jim. (NOT You'd better see that with Jim.)

See if ... can often means 'try to'.

See if you can get him to stop talking.

For see + object + infinitive / -ing form, see 242.

For the difference between see, look and watch, see 506.

506 see, look (at) and watch

1 see

See is the ordinary verb to say that something 'comes to our eyes', whether or not we are paying attention.

Suddenly I saw something strange. (NOT Suddenly I looked at something strange.)

Did you see the article about the strike in today's paper?

2 look (at)

We use look to talk about concentrating, paying attention, trying to see what is there. You can see something without wanting to, but you can only look at something deliberately. Compare:

I looked at the photo, but I didn't see anybody I knew.

Do you see that man? ~ Yes.~ Look again. ~ Good heavens! It's Moriarty!

He looked at her with his eyes full of love.

When look has an object it is followed by at. When there is no object there is no preposition. Compare:

Look at me! (NOT Look me!)   Look! (NOT Look at!)

Note that at is often dropped before a wh-clause.

Look (at) what you've done!

Look who's here!   Look where you're going.

3 watch

Watch is like look at, but suggests that something is happening or going to happen. We watch things that change, move or develop.

Watch that man - I want to know everything he does.

I usually watch a football match on Saturday afternoon.

4 complete experiences: see

Watch is typically used to talk about experiences that are going on, in progress.

We often prefer see to talk about the whole of a performance, play, cinema film, match etc. Compare:

He got into a fight yesterday afternoon while he was watching a football match. (NOT ... while he was seeing a football match.)

Have you ever seen Chaplin's 'The Great Dictator'? (NOT Have you ever watched Chaplin's 'The Great Dictator'?)

5 watch TV

Watch is normally used with TV; watch and see are both used to talk about TV programmes and films.

You spend too much time watching TV.

We watched/saw a great film on TV last night.

6 see if/whether

See can be followed by if/whether, in the sense of 'find out'. Look and watch are not normally used in this way.

See if that suit still fits you. (NOT Look if that suit ... )

I'm looking to see whether there's any food left. (NOT I'm looking whether there's ... )

Ring up and see whether she's in.

For infinitives and -ing forms after these verbs, see 242.

For other meanings of see (and progressive uses), see 243, 471.

For other meanings of look, see 157.19. For if and whether, see 621.

There are similar differences between hear and listen (to). See 241.

507 seem

1 link verb: used with adjectives

Seem is a link verb (see 328); it is followed by adjectives, not adverbs.

You seem angry about something. (NOT You seem angrily ... )

2 seem and seem to be

Seem is often followed by to be.We prefer seem to be when we are talking about objective facts - things that seem definitely to be true. Seem is used without to be when we are talking about subjective impressions. (The difference is not always clear-cut, and both are often possible.) Compare:

- The bus seems to be full.

She seems excited.

- The doctors have done the tests, and he definitely seems to be mentally ill.

It seems crazy, but I think I'm in love with the postman. (NOT It seems to be crazy ... )

- According to the experts, the north side of the castle seems to be about 100 years older than the rest.

He seems older than he is. (NOT He seems to be older than he is - this would suggest that he might actually be older than he is.)

- She doesn't seem to be ready yet.

She seems (to be) very sleepy today.

3 with nouns

Seem to be is normal before noun phrases.

I looked through the binoculars: it seemed to be some sort of large rat. (NOT ... it seemed some sort of large rat.)

I spoke to a man who seemed to be the boss. (NOT ... who seemed the boss.)

However, to be can be dropped before noun phrases which express more subjective feelings.

She seems (to be) a nice girl.

The cup seemed almost doll's size in his hands.

It seems a pity, but I can't see you this weekend. (NOT It seems to be a pity ... )

4 other infinitives

Seem can be followed by the infinitives of other verbs besides be.

Ann seems to need a lot of attention.

Perfect infinitives (see 280) are possible.

The tax people seem to have made a mistake.

To express a negative idea, we most often use a negative form of seem; but in a more formal style not can go with the following infinitive. Compare:

He doesn't seem to be at home.

He seems not to be at home. (formal)

Note the structure can't seem to ...

I can't seem to get anything right.

(More formal: I seem not to be able to get anything right.)

5 seem like

We can use like, but not as, after seem.

North Wales seems (like) a good place for a holiday. (NOT ... seems as a ... )

6 it seems

It can be a preparatory subject (see 446) for that- and as if-clauses after seem.

It seems that Bill and Alice have had a row.

It seemed as if the night was never going to end.

7 there seems

There (see 586) can be a preparatory subject for seem to be.

There seems to be some mistake.

For like and as, see 326. Appear is used in similar ways (see 58).

508 sensible and sensitive

A sensible person has 'common sense', and does not make stupid decisions.

I want to buy that dress. ~ Be sensible, dear. It's much too expensive.

A sensitive person feels things easily or deeply, and may be easily hurt.

Don't shout at her - she's very sensitive. (NOT ... very sensible.)

Have you got a sun cream for sensitive skin? (NOT ... for sensible skin?)

Sensible is a 'false friend' - similar words in some languages mean 'sensitive'.

509 sentence structure (1): basic word order

1 subject - verb - object/complement

In an affirmative sentence, the subject normally comes before the verb; objects or complements come after the verb.

Ann smiled.   My father likes dogs.   Eric is a doctor.

In a few affirmative structures the verb can come before the subject (e.g. So can I, In came Mrs Parker). See 302-303. For sentences that begin with the object (e.g. Those people I can't stand), see 513.

2 preparatory it and there

When the subject or object is an infinitive phrase or clause, we often put it at the end of a sentence, and use it as a preparatory subject or object (see 446-447).

It's difficult to understand what he wants.

She made it clear that she disagreed.

There can be a preparatory subject for an indefinite expression (see 587).

There is a big spider in the bath.

3 direct and indirect objects

Indirect objects can come before direct objects (without a preposition) or after direct objects (with a preposition).

She sent the nurse some flowers.   She sent some flowers to the nurse.

For details, see 610.

4 questions: auxiliary before subject

Questions normally have the order auxiliary verb - subject - main verb.

Have you seen Andrew?   Where was she going?   Did Mary phone?

Indirect questions (see 276) have the subject before the verb.

Do you know where she was going?

5 negatives: auxiliary + not

Negative structures have not after an auxiliary verb.

The train did not stop. (NOT The train stopped not.)

For word order in negative questions (e.g. Why didn't she come? / Why did she not come?), see 368.

6 adjectives before nouns

When adjectives are together with nouns, they usually come before them.

an interesting book   difficult questions

For the order of adjectives, see 15. For exceptions and special cases, see 13.

7 adverbs: possible positions

Different adverbs can go in different places in a sentence: at the beginning, with the verb, or at the end. For details, see 21-25.

Suddenly I had a terrible thought.

The children had probably gone home.   I was playing badly.

An adverb cannot normally come between a verb and its object.

I like mushrooms very much. (NOT I like very much mushrooms.)

8 subordinate clauses (after ... , if ... , because ... , etc)

Adverbial subordinate clauses (beginning for example, after, before, when, while, if, because) can usually come either before or after the rest of the sentence (see 510.3).

After I left school I spent a year in China. (OR I spent a year in China after I left school.)

9 prepositions: in what ... I what ... in

In an informal style, a preposition can be separated from its object in certain structures. For details, see 452. Compare:

In what hotel did the President stay? (formal)

What hotel did the President stay in? (informal)

For ways of arranging the information in a sentence, see 512.

For special structures in spoken English, see 514.

For word order in exclamations (e.g. How kind you are!), see 195.

For word order with phrasal verbs (e.g. She put out the cat / She put the cat out), see 599.4.

For structures like The older I get ... , see 139.5.

For structures like cold as/though she was, see 71.

For structures like so/how strange an experience, see 14.

For quite a ... and rather a ... , see 489, 490.

For word order with enough, see 187.

510 sentence structure (2): conjunctions

1 What are conjunctions?

Conjunctions are words that join clauses into sentences.

CLAUSE |  | CONJUNCTION |  | CLAUSE
I went to bed early |  | because |  | I was extremely tired.
|  | SENTENCE |  |

Conjunctions not only join clauses together; they also show how the meanings of the two clauses are related.

We brought the food and they supplied the drink. (addition)

She was poor but she was honest. (contrast)

We can go swimming, or we could stay here. (alternative)

People disliked her because she was so rude. (cause)

I'll phone you when I arrive. (time)

2 two kinds

And, but and or are often called 'co-ordinating conjunctions'. They join pairs of clauses that are grammatically independent of each other.

Other conjunctions, like because, when, that or which, are called 'subordinating conjunctions', A subordinating conjunction together with its following clause acts like a part of the other clause.

                            ADVERB

I'll phone you | tomorrow.

                             ADVERB

I'll phone you | when I arrive.

(When I arrive is similar to tomorrow - it acts like an adverb in the clause I'll phone you ... )

                      OBJECT

He told me | a lie.

                               OBJECT

He told me | that he loved me.

(that he loved me is similar to a lie - it is the object in the clause He told me ... )

                ADJECTIVE

It's an | unanswerable | question.

                                   ADJECTIVE

It's a question | which nobody can answer.

(which nobody can answer is similar to unanswerable - it acts like an adjective in the clause It's a question ... )

Some conjunctions are made up of two or more words.

I stayed an extra night so that I could see Ann.

Let me know the moment that you arrive.

In grammars, clauses that follow subordinating conjunctions are called 'subordinate clauses' or 'dependent clauses'.

3 position of subordinate clauses

Adverb clauses can usually go either first or last in a sentence (depending on what is to be emphasised - the most important information usually comes last).

- While I was having a shower, I slipped on the floor. (emphasises what happened)

I slipped on the floor while I was having a shower. (emphasises when it happened)

~ If you need help, just let me know.

Just let me know if you need help.

- Although the bicycle was expensive, she decided to buy it.

She decided to buy the bicycle although it was expensive.

~ Because she was too angry to speak, Ann said nothing.

Ann said nothing, because she was too angry to speak.

4 punctuation

Commas are often used to separate longer or more complicated clauses.

Shorter pairs of clauses are often connected without commas. Compare:

I came home and the others went dancing.

I decided to come home earlier than I had planned, and the others spent the evening at the local club.

When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, it is more often separated by a comma, even if it is short. Compare:

If you are passing, come in and see us.

Come in and see us if you are passing.

For punctuation in relative clauses, see 495.

5 leaving words out

Words for repeated ideas can often be left out in the second of two co-ordinate clauses (see 178 for details), but not normally in a subordinate clause. Compare:

She was depressed, and didn't know what to do. (= and she didn't know what to do.)

She was depressed, because she didn't know what to do. (NOT She was depressed, because didn't know ... )

However, after if, when, while, until, once, unless and (al)though, a pronoun subject and the verb be can often be dropped, especially in common fixed expressions like if necessary.

I'll pay for you if necessary. (= ... if it is necessary.)

If in doubt, wait and see. (= If you are in doubt ... )

When in Rome, do as the Romans do.   Cook slowly until ready.

Once in bed, I read for twenty minutes and then turned out the light.

Many conjunctions that express time relations (after, before, since, when, while, whenever, once and until) can often be followed by -ing forms or past participles instead of subjects and full verbs (see 411.6).

I always feel better after talking to you.

Some things are never forgotten, once learnt.

6 conjunctions in separate sentences

Normally a conjunction connects two clauses into one sentence. However, sometimes a conjunction and its clause can stand alone. This happens, for example, in answers.

When are you going to get up?~ When I'm ready.

Why did you do that? ~ Because I felt like it.

I'm going out, Mum. ~ As soon as you've brushed your hair.

Writers and speakers can also separate clauses for emphasis.

This government has got to go. Before it does any more damage.

Afterthoughts may also begin with conjunctions.

OK, I did it. - But I didn't mean to.

For tenses in subordinate clauses, see 580.

For structures in which that is dropped, see 584.

See also 494-498 (relative pronouns and clauses), 274-278 (indirect speech), and the individual entries on the various conjunctions.

511 sentence structure (3): problems with conjunctions

In most languages of European origin, clauses are joined together by conjunctions in similar ways. However, students who speak other languages may have some problems in using English conjunctions correctly.

1 one conjunction for two clauses

One conjunction is enough to join two clauses - we do not normally use two.

- Although she was tired, she went to work.

She was tired but she went to work.

(NOT Although she was tired but she went to work.)

- Because I liked him, I tried to help him.

I liked him, so I tried to help him.

(NOT Because I liked him, so I tried to help him.)

- As you know, I work very hard.

You know that I work very hard.

(NOT As you know, that I work very hard.)

However, we can use and or or together with a repeated conjunction.

We came back because we ran out of money, and because Ann got ill.

She didn't write when I was ill, or when I got married.

2 relative pronouns are also conjunctions

Relative pronouns (who, which and that - see 494) join clauses like conjunctions.

There's the girl who works with my sister.

A relative pronoun is like the subject or object of the verb that comes after it. So we do not need another subject or object.

I've got a friend who works in a pub. (NOT ... who he works in a pub.)

The man (that) she married was an old friend of mine. (NOT The man that she married him ... )

She always thanks me for the money that I give her. (NOT ... the money that I give her it.)

3 that, where and when

That is often used instead of which or who(m) (see 494-495).

There's the girl that works with my sister.

But we do not usually use that instead of when or where.

August 31st is a national holiday, when everybody dances in the streets. (NOT ... that everybody dances ... )

The house where I live is very small. (NOT The house that I live is very small.)

But that ... in can mean the same as where.

The house that I live in is very small.

That can be used instead of where and when in a few special cases (e.g. after place, day); for details, see 498.6.

I'll always remember the day (that) I met you.

For conjunctions after prepositions, see 453.

For now as a conjunction, see 387. For once, see 394. For the moment and immediately, see 267.

512 sentence structure (4): information structure

1 different ways of organising information

When we talk about a situation, we can usually organise the information in various ways - for example, by choosing different elements of the situation as the subject of a clause or sentence.

The storm blew Margaret's roof off.

Margaret's roof was blown off in the storm.

Margaret had her roof blown off in the storm.

The way we choose to organise information in a clause or sentence can depend on what has been said before, on what the listener already knows, or on what we want to emphasise. This is a complicated area of English grammar.

Some guidelines are given below.

2 normal order: important new information last

Most often, a clause or sentence moves from 'known' to 'new': from low to high information value. So we often choose as the subject a person or thing that is already being talked about or that has already been mentioned, or something that the speaker and hearer are both familiar with, or even some new information that is not the main point of the message. The important new information generally comes at the end of a clause or sentence.

How's Joe these days? ~ Oh, fine. He's just got married to a very nice girl. (More natural than ... A very nice girl's just got married to him.)

My father was bitten by a dog last week. (More natural than A dog bit my father last week.)

Our dog bit the postman this morning. (More natural than The postman was bitten by our dog this morning.)

I can't find my clothes. ~ Well, your trousers are under my coat. (More natural than ... My coat's on your trousers.)

To avoid beginning a clause with a completely new element, we can use the there is structure. For details, see 587.

There's a cat on the roof (More natural than A cat's on the roof)

For 'known' and 'new' information with as, since and because, see 72.

3 getting the right subject: actives, passives, etc

In many situations, there is an 'agent' (the person or thing who does something) and a 'patient' (the person or thing that something is done to). If we want to make the agent the subject, we can usually do this by choosing an active verb form (see 10).

The storm blew Margaret's roof off.

Somebody's dropped ketchup all over the floor.

If we want to make the patient the subject, we can usually do this by choosing a passive verb form (see 412).

Margaret's roof was blown off in the storm.

Ketchup has been dropped all over the floor.

If we want to make something else the subject, we can often do this by using a structure with have + object + past participle (see 238.3).

Margaret had her roof blown off in the storm.

The floor has had ketchup dropped all over it.

Structures with have are often used to 'personalise' a situation by making a person the subject.

I've got the house full of children. (Instead of The house is full of children. OR There are children all over the house.)

We can often get the subject we want by choosing the right verb. Compare:

- The biscuit factory employs 7,000 people.

7,000 people work for the biscuit factory.

- He led the children through the silent streets.

The children followed him through the silent streets.

Some verbs can have both agent and patient subjects. For details, see 609.

She opened the door.   The door opened.

4 end-weight: It worried me that she hadn't been in touch

Longer and heavier structures usually come last in a clause or sentence. (These usually have the highest 'information-value' in any case.)

Children are sometimes discouraged by the length of time it takes to learn a musical instrument. (More natural than The length of time it takes to learn a musical instrument sometimes discourages children.)

Because of this, we often use a structure with 'preparatory it' in order to move a clause or infinitive subject or object to the end of a sentence. For details, see 446-447.

It worried me that she hadn't been in touch for so long. (More natural than That she hadn't been in touch for so long worried me.)

It's important to tell us everything you know. (More natural than To tell us everything you know is important.)

He made it clear that he was not in the least interested. (More natural than He made that he was not in the least interested clear.)

Adverbs do not normally separate the verb from the object in an English clause (see 21.1). However, a very long and heavy object may come after a shorter adverb. Compare:

She plays the violin very well (NOT She plays very well the violin.)

She plays very well almost any instrument that you can think of and several that you can't.

End-weight can also affect the word order of indirect questions. Compare:

I'm not sure what the point is.

I'm not sure what is the point of spending hours and hours discussing this.

5 emphatic structures: What I need is ... ; Nice man, Joe

There are various ways of giving extra emphasis to one part of a sentence. One way is to use a 'cleft sentence' with it or what: this emphasises one idea by putting everything else into a subordinate clause. For details, see 130-131.

It was my mother who finally called the police.

What I need is a hot bath and a drink.

If we move to the beginning of a sentence something that does not normally go there, this gives it extra emphasis. This kind of structure ('fronting') is common in speech, where intonation can make the information structure clear. For details, see 513.

The other plans we'll look at next week.   Nice man, Joe.

For more information about emphasis, see 184.

513 sentence structure (5): fronting

1 People like that I just can't stand

Affirmative sentences most often begin with the grammatical subject.

I just can't stand people like that.

If we begin a sentence with something else (Fronting'), this is often to make it the topic - the thing we are talking about - even though it is not the grammatical subject. This can also move the main new information to the end - its most natural position (see 512).

This question we have already discussed at some length.

All the other information which you need I am putting in the post today. (from a business letter)

Any video in our catalogue we can supply, if available. (Notice in music shop.)

Fronting is particularly common in speech.

People like that I just can't stand.

(A) fat lot of good that does me. (= 'That doesn't do me much good', but putting strong emphasis on me.)

Question-word clauses are often fronted.

What I'm going to do next I just don't know.

How she got the gun through customs we never found out.

2 Very good lesson we had

Fronting words in short sentences can also give them extra emphasis. This happens mostly in speech.

Strange people they are!

Very good lesson we had yesterday.   Last for ever these shoes will.

In a few exclamatory expressions, a noun is fronted before that, but this is uncommon in modern English.

Fool that I was!

3 ellipsis: Postman been?

In a very informal style, articles, pronouns and auxiliary verbs are often left out, bringing a more important word to the front of the clause. This is called 'ellipsis': for details, see 179.

Postman been?   Seen John?

Sometimes ellipsis is used to front a verb and/or complement, while the subject is put in a 'tag' (see 514) at the end.

Likes his beer, Stephen does.

Funny, your brother.   Nice day, isn't it?

4 adverbs etc: Off we go!

Many adverbs and adverbial expressions can go at the beginning of a clause (see 22). This often happens when we are using the adverbs to structure a piece of narrative or a description.

Once upon a time there were three little pigs. One day ... Then ... Soon after that ... After dark, ...

Inside the front door there is ... Opposite the living room is ... On the right you can see ... At the top of the stairs ...

Adverb particles are often fronted when giving instructions to small children.

Off we go!   Down you come!

Inversion (see 302-303) is necessary after some emphatic fronted adverbs and adverbial expressions.

Under no circumstances can we accept cheques. (NOT Under no circumstances we can ... )

Round the corner came Mrs Porter.

5 fronting with as or though

Fronted adjectives and adverbs are possible in a structure with as or though (see 71).

Young as I was, I realised what was happening.

Tired though she was, she went on working.

Fast though she drove, she could not catch them.

Much as I respect his work, I cannot agree with him.

See also entries on basic word order (509), information structure (512). 'spacing out' information in speech (514), tags (514), emphasis (184) and cleft sentences (130-131).

For the use of passive and other structures to bring objects to the front, See 512.3, 414.1.

514 sentence structure (6): spoken structures and tags

1 This guy who rang up, he's an architect

In informal speech, we often 'space out' the different elements of a sentence, giving the hearer a little extra time to interpret each part before going on to the next.

Last Wednesday it was, I was just going to work, ...

It's terrible, you know, the unemployment down there.

One way of spacing out information is to separate a subject or object, announce it at the front of a sentence, and then repeat it with a pronoun.

George Best - now he was a good player.

This guy who rang up, he's an architect. Well, ...

That couple we met in Berlin, we don't want to send them a card, do we?

One of my brothers, his wife's a singer, he says ...

This does not usually happen with pronoun subjects, but me and myself are occasionally detached and fronted.

Me, I don't care.

Myself, I think you're making a big mistake.

Another common way of separating part of a sentence is to introduce it with You know ...

You know Sylvia. Well, she ...

2 tags: They work very hard, most of them

We can space out information by putting some of it in a complete sentence and then adding more details at the end. The extra words at the end are called a 'tag'.

They work very hard, most of them.

That's the doorbell, I think.   I don't mind, to be honest.

It is possible to 'announce' the subject with a pronoun, and put the full subject in a tag.

He hasn't a chance, Fred.   He likes his beer, John.

They're very polite, your children.

In sentences like these, we often drop the pronoun at the beginning.

Hasn't a chance, Fred.   Likes his beer, John.

We can also drop an unstressed form of be.

Very polite, your children.

Living in the clouds, you lot.   Crazy, that driver.

The tag can repeat the verb by using an auxiliary.

(He) hasn't a chance, Fred hasn't.

(He) likes his beer, John does.

(She) really got on my nerves, Sylvia did.

3 emphasising tags: You've gone mad, you have

Sometimes a tag gives no new information, but simply repeats and emphasises the subject and verb.

You've gone mad, you have.

I'm getting fed up, I am.   He likes his beer, he does.

Pronouns are not usually used alone in tags, except for reflexives.

(I) don't think much of the party, myself.

For more about dropping words ('ellipsis') at the beginning of a sentence, see 179.

For other uses of tags and similar structures, see 487-488 (question tags), 484 (reply questions) and 517 (short answers).

515 sentence structure (7): understanding complicated structures

1 clause inside clause: Ann, when she finally ...

Sometimes an adverb clause is put into the middle of another clause, separating a subject from its verb.

            subject + if/when/after/because ... + verb

 Ann , when she finally managed to go to sleep,  had  a series of bad dreams.

 The government , if recent reports can be trusted, has  decided not to raise interest rates.

In these structures, a noun may not be the subject of a verb that comes just

after it.

Mr Andrews, when he saw the policeman, started running as fast as he could. (It was not the policeman who started running.)

Sentences like these can be hard for learners to understand, especially if they are long and complicated.

Mr Fisher, after he had completed his discussions with the bank manager, drew a large sum of money out of the bank and caught the next plane to Paris. (A learner might think that it was the bank manager who took the money and went to Paris.)

One way of deciding what to do if you have difficulty in choosing the best course of action is to toss a coin. (Does the sentence say that the best course of action is to toss a coin?)

2 that picture of the children standing ...

The same thing can happen when the subject of a sentence is followed by a descriptive phrase or relative clause.

   subject + descriptive phrase/ clause + verb

That picture of the children standing in front of the Palace talking to the Prime Minister is wonderful. (The sentence does not say that the Prime Minister is wonderful.)

The tree that Mary gave to my younger brother is growing fast.

The reporter who first made contact with the kidnappers telephoned the police immediately. (Who telephoned?)

3 missing relative pronouns: the film she was talking about

When relative pronouns (who/which/that) are left out (see 494.6), this can cause difficulty.

It was a question a small child could have answered. (= ... that a small child could have answered.)

The film she was talking about at Celia's party turned out to be very boring. (= ... the film which she was talking about ... )

The manager of Brown's, the chemist's, has confirmed that bottles of shampoo he took off the shelves after animal rights protesters claimed to have put bleach into them did contain poisonous chemicals. (= ... bottles of shampoo which he took off ... )

The really important point is that because he did not invite the one man he certainly should have asked his father was angry. (Does the sentence say that he should he have asked his father?)

4 missing that: The man claimed he was ...

We often leave out the conjunction that after verbs (see 584). This can make complicated sentences more difficult to follow.

The man who was arrested claimed he was somewhere else at the time of the robbery. (= ... claimed that he was ... )

She insisted she thought he knew she was on the train. (= She insisted that she thought that he knew that ... )

In short news reports, that is sometimes left out after nouns.

Officials did not accept his claim he was innocent. (= ... that he was innocent.)

The Minister denied the suggestion he had concealed information from Parliament. (= ... the suggestion that he ... )

5 past participles that look like past tenses: the children asked ... told the police

Past participles (e.g. arrested, accused) are often used descriptively after nouns, rather like reduced relative clauses (see 498.10). When these look the same as past tenses, they can cause confusion. In the following examples from news reports, arrested means 'who was arrested', accused means 'who is accused', and asked means 'who were asked'.

A court has heard that a young civil servant arrested after shootings on Tyneside left one man dead is to be charged with murder.

A Karnak separatist accused of leading an attack on a French police barracks in which four gendarmes died has been arrested.

A number of the children asked for comments on the proposals to expel some immigrants told the police they disagreed.

6 reporting expressions: The man who Ann said will tell us

Complicated structures can be produced when reporting expressions are included in sentences.

This is the man who Ann said will tell us all about the church.

There are those people that I thought were going to buy our house.

Who did you say (that) you wanted to invite for Christmas?

What do you suppose will happen now?

This can also happen with reported question structures.

He's gone I don't know how far.

We spent I can't remember how much money on our holiday.

Mary gave me you'll never guess what for my birthday.

7 heavy subject: Getting up very early ... makes ...

When the subject of a sentence is a long phrase or clause, the structure can be difficult to follow.

Getting up very early in the morning makes you feel really superior. (The first seven words are the subject.)

Going on holiday out of season when everybody else is working can save you a lot of money. (11-word subject)

What Ann's little sister wanted above everything else in the whole world was a horse. (12-word subject)

8 heavy indirect object: I gave all the people who had helped me ...

Similar problems can be caused by a long indirect object.

She gave all the people who had helped her with her research copies of her book.

He brought the village where he had grown up unexpected fame and prosperity.

9 more examples

Here are more examples of the above structures, some of them extreme, taken from news reports and fiction.

A 24-year-old labourer who was arrested in Trafalgar Square when he allegedly attempted to knife a traffic warden is said to have injured three policemen.

The Consumers' Association study showed 75% of parents thought junk food advertising campaigns made it harder for them to insist their children ate healthy food.

The rebel leader found out that in spite of the precautions of the soldiers he had bought the guns from the police had planted an informer among them.

The report will look into claims the design of the courthouse the men escaped from was at fault.

Statements reassuring the public patients needing intensive care are getting it are total nonsense.

What they say is surprising isn't.

Pictures of the baby the judge ordered should not be identified by reporters appeared in a Sunday newspaper.

Police hunting thieves who dumped a ten-month-old baby in an alley after finding him inside a car they stole have charged two teenage boys.

The head doorman at a nightclub where the ecstacy pill which killed P. L. was sold has admitted he knew drugs were sold at the club ..

But what bothered him more than what the files that were in the drawer could mean was the feeling that something was certainly missing.

Police called to a house in Hampshire after neighbours reported cries for help found 18-year-old M. F. stuck in a cat-flap after being locked out of his home.

Millennium Dome chiefs have refused to discuss reports they ignored advice attendance figures at the attraction would be lower than hoped. The Sunday Times says the Millennium Commission warned Dome owners the New Millennium Experience Company its own estimate was between 4.5m and 5m. NMEC reportedly insisted there would be at least 7m visitors this year.

(The Millennium Dome was a tourist attraction built in London to celebrate the year 2000. It lost an enormous amount of money.)

516 shade and shadow

Shade is protection from the sun.

I'm hot. Let's find some shade to sit in.

The temperature's 30 degrees in the shade.

A shadow is the 'picture' made by something that blocks out light.

In the evening your shadow is longer than you are.

There's an old story about a man without a shadow.

517 short answers: Yes, he can etc

Answers are often grammatically incomplete, because they do not need to repeat words that have just been said. A common 'short answer' pattern is subject + auxiliary verb, together with whatever other words are really necessary.

Can he swim? ~ Yes, he can. (More natural than Yes, he can swim.)

Has it stopped raining? ~ No, it hasn't.

Are you enjoying yourself? ~ I certainly am.

Don't forget to write. ~ I won't.

You didn't phone Debbie last night. ~ No, but I did this morning.

We use do if there is no other auxiliary.

She likes cakes.~ She really does.

That surprised you. ~ It certainly did.

Non-auxiliary be and have are used in short answers.

Is she happy? ~ I think she is.

Have you a light?~ Yes, I have.

Short answers can be followed by tags (see 487-488).

Nice day. ~ Yes, it is, isn't it?

Note that stressed, non-contracted affirmative forms are used in short answers.

Yes, I am. (NOT Yes, I'm.)

For similar structures, see 484 (reply questions), 487-488 (question tags) and 181(ellipsis).

For So am I etc, see 541.1. For So I am etc, see 541.2.

518 should (1): introduction

1 forms

Should is a modal auxiliary verb (see 353-354). It has no -s in the third person singular.

The postman should be here soon. (NOT The postman shoulds ... )

Questions and negatives are made without do.

Should we tell Judy? (NOT Do we should ... ?)

Should is followed by an infinitive without to.

Should I go? (NOT Should I to go?)

She should be told the truth.

There is a contracted negative shouldn't.

The meeting shouldn't take long.

Should has a weak pronunciation /ʃəd/, often used when it is not stressed (see 616).

2 obligation, probability

Should can be used to talk about obligation: things that it is good or important for people to do (see 519.1).

Everybody should wear car seat belts.

It can also be used to say what we think is probable, because it is logical or normal (see 519.2).

She's away, but she should be back tomorrow.

With these meanings, should is like a weaker form of must.

3 It is important/surprising that ... should ...

Should is used in that-clauses after certain adjectives and nouns, especially in British English (see 521).

It's important that somebody should talk to the police.

It's surprising that she should say that to you.

4 if, in case, etc

Should can be used in if-clauses (see 261.1 for details), after in case (see 271.2), after for fear that and lest (see 321) and after so that and in order that (see 543).

If you should see Caroline, tell her I've got the tickets.

I'll get a chicken out of the freezer in case Aunt Mary should come.

He turned the radio down so that he shouldn't disturb the old lady.

5 I should/would; we should/would

Should can be used instead of would after I and we in certain cases. This happens:

• in sentences with if (see 258.3)

If I had more time I should/would learn Japanese.

• in indirect speech (corresponding to shall/will in direct speech - see 275)

I told her that we should/would be ready at 8.00. ('We shall/will be ready ... .')

• and in 'future in the past' sentences (see 221).

I looked at the house where I should/would spend the next three years.

519 should (2): obligation, deduction etc

1 obligation: Everybody should wear seat belts

We often use should to talk about obligation, duty and similar ideas. It is less strong than must (see 520).

Everybody should wear car seat belts.

You shouldn't say things like that to Granny.

Applications should be sent before December 30th. (More polite than Applications must be sent ... )

In questions, should is used to ask for advice or instructions, like a less definite form of shall (see 217).

Should I go and see the police, do you think?

What should we do?

For the difference between should and had better, see 230.

2 probability: She should be back tomorrow

We can use should to say that we know something is probable (because it is logical or normal in the circumstances).

She's away, but she should be back tomorrow. (= I have good reasons to believe that she will be back tomorrow.)

Henry should get here soon - he left home at six.

We're spending the winter in Florida. ~ That should be nice.

3 past use: I knew that I should ... ; I was supposed to ...

Should is used unchanged in past indirect speech, if should was used in direct speech.

I thought 'I should write to Jane.' → I knew that I should write to Jane.

In other cases, should + infinitive is not normally used to talk about the past. Instead, we can use for example was/were supposed to ... (see 572).

It was going to be a long day. I was supposed to clean up all the stables, and then start on the garden. (NOT ... I should clean up ... )

She was supposed to be in her office, but she wasn't. (NOT She should be in her office, but she wasn't.)

4 should have ...

Should have + past participle can be used to talk about past events which did not happen, or which may or may not have happened.

I should have phoned Ed this morning, but I forgot.

Ten o'clock: she should have arrived in the office by now.

You shouldn't have called him a fool - it really upset him.

For should after in case, see 271.2.

For should after so that and in order that, see 543.

For How should ... ? and Why should ... ?, see 482.2.

For special uses of should in other subordinate clauses, see 521.

520 should (3): should, ought and must

1 should and ought

Should and ought (see 403) are very similar, and can often replace each other.

They ought to be more sensible, shouldn't they?

They are both used to talk about obligation and duty, to give advice, and to say what we think it is right for people to do or have done. Should is much more frequent than ought.

You should / ought to see 'Daughter of the Moon' - it's a great film.

You should / ought to have seen his face!

Should and ought are not used in polite requests.

Could you move your head a bit? I can't see. (NOT You should / ought to move your head a bit ... )

Should and ought are both also used to talk about logical probability.

I've bought three loaves - that should / ought to be enough.

That should / ought to be Janet coming upstairs now.

Ought, unlike should, is followed by a to-infinitive.

2 must is stronger than should/ought

Must has similar meanings to should and ought, but is stronger or more definite. It expresses great confidence that something will happen, or that something is true; should and ought express less confidence. Compare:

- The doctor said I must give up smoking. (an order which is likely to be obeyed)

You really ought to give up smoking. (a piece of advice which mayor may not be followed)

- Rob must be at home by now. (= I'm sure he is at home.)

Rob should be at home by now. (= I think he is probably at home.)

Should can be used instead of must to make instructions sound more polite.

This form should be filled in in ink.

Applications should be sent by 31 January.

3 must not used

Should and ought can be used for predictions - to say what people expect to happen. Must is not often used in this way.

It should be fine tomorrow. (BUT NOT It must be fine tomorrow.)

Next week's exam should be easy. (BUT NOT Next week's exam must be easy.)

Should have and ought to have + past participle can be used to talk about unfulfilled obligation in the past. Must is not used like this.

You should have been nicer to Annie. (BUT NOT You must have been nicer to Annie.)

For details of the use of must, see 358-36l.

For the difference between should/ ought and had better, see 230.

521 should (4): in subordinate clauses

1 importance: It's important that ... should ...

In formal British English, should can be used in that-clauses after adjectives and nouns expressing the importance of an action (e.g. important, necessary, vital, essential, eager, anxious, concerned, wish).

It's important that somebody should talk to the police.

Is it necessary that my uncle should be informed?

I'm anxious that nobody should be hurt.

It is his wish that the money should be given to charity.

This also happens after some verbs expressing similar ideas, especially in sentences about the past.

He insisted that the contract should be read aloud.

I recommended that she should reduce her expenditure.

In a less formal style, other structures are preferred.

It's important that she talks to me when she gets here.

Was it necessary to tell my uncle?

In American English, this use of should is unusual; subjunctives may be used (see 561).

It's important that somebody talk to the police.

Was it necessary that my uncle be informed?

I recommend that she reduce her expenditure.

2 reactions: It's surprising that she should ...

Should is also used in subordinate clauses after words expressing personal judgements and reactions, especially to facts which are already known or have already been mentioned. (This use, too, is more common in British than American English. It is not particularly formal.)

It's surprising that she should say that to you.

I was shocked that she shouldn't have invited Phyllis.

I'm sorry you should think I did it on purpose.

Do you think it's normal that the child should be so tired?

In American English, would is more usual in this kind of sentence.

It was natural that they would want him to go to a good school. (BrE ... that they should ... )

Sentences like these can also be constructed without should. Subjunctives cannot be used.

It's surprising that she says/said that sort of thing to you. (BUT NOT It's surprising that she say ... )

I was shocked that she didn't invite Phyllis.

For should in if-clauses, see 261.1; after in case, see 271.2; after lest, see 321; after so that and in order that, see 543.

522 since: tenses

1 main clause: I've known her since ...

In sentences with since (referring to time), we normally use present perfect and past perfect tenses in the main clause.

I've known her since 1980. (NOT I know her since ... )

We haven't seen Jamie since Christmas.

I was sorry when Jacky moved to America; we had been good friends since university days.

However, present and past tenses are also occasionally found, especially in sentences about changes.

You're looking much better since your operation.

She doesn't come round to see us so much since her marriage.

Since last Sunday I can't stop thinking about you.

Things weren't going so well since Father's illness.

2 It's a long time since ...

In British English, present and past tenses are common in the structure It is/was ... since ...

It's a long time since the last meeting.

It was ages since that wonderful holiday.

American English prefers perfect tenses in this structure.

It's been a long time since the last meeting.

It had been ages since that wonderful vacation.

3 since-clause: since we were at school

Since can be used as a conjunction of time, introducing its own clause. The tense in the since-clause can be perfect or past, depending on the meaning. Compare:

- I've known her since we were at school together.

I've known her since I've lived in this street.

- You've drunk about ten cups of tea since you arrived.

You've drunk about ten cups of tea since you've been sitting here.

- We visit my parents every week since we bought the car.

We visit my parents every week since we've had the car.

For more about present perfect tenses, including American usage, see 455-460.

For past perfect tenses, see 423-425.

For the differences between since, for and from, see 208.

For since meaning 'as' or 'because', see 72.

523 singular and plural (1): regular plurals

The plural of most nouns is made by just adding -s to the singular. But there are some special cases.

1 plural of nouns ending in consonant + y

If the singular ends in consonant + y (for example -by, -dy, -ry, -ty), the plural is normally made by changing y to i and adding -es.

Singular | Plural
... consonant + y | ... consonant + ies
baby | babies
lady | ladies
ferry | ferries
party | parties

If the singular ends in vowel + y (e.g. day, boy, guy, donkey), the plural is made by adding -s (days, boys, guys, donkeys).

Proper names ending in consonant + y usually have plurals in -ys.

Do you know the Kennedys? (NOT ... the Kennedies?)

I hate Februarys.

2 plural of nouns ending in -sh, -ch, -s, -x or -z

If the singular ends in -sh, -ch, -s, -x or -z, the plural is made by adding -es.

Singular | Plural
... ch/sh/s/x/z | ...ches/shes/ses/xes/zes
church | churches
crash | crashes
bus | buses
box | boxes
buzz | buzzes

Nouns ending in a single -z have plurals in -zzes: quiz/quizzes, fez/fezzes.

3 plural of nouns ending in -o

Some nouns ending in -o have plurals in -es. The most common:

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
echo | echoes | potato | potatoes
hero | heroes | tomato | tomatoes
negro | negroes |  |

Nouns ending in vowel + o have plurals in -s (e.g. radios, zoos). So do the following, and most new words ending in -o that come into the language:

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
commando | commandos | photo | photos
concerto | concertos | piano | pianos
Eskimo | Eskimos | solo | solos
kilo | kilos | soprano | sopranos
logo | logos |  |

The following words can have plurals in -s or -es; -es is more common.

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
buffalo | buffalo(e)s | tornado | tornado(e)s
mosquito | mosquito(e)s | volcano | volcano(e)s

524 singular and plural (2): irregular and special plurals

1 irregular plurals in -ves

The following nouns ending in -f(e) have plurals in -ves.

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
calf | calves | self | selves
elf | elves | sheaf | sheaves
half | halves | shelf | shelves
knife | knives | thief | thieves
leaf | leaves | wife | wives
life | lives | wolf | wolves
loaf | loaves |  |

Dwarf, hoof, scarf and wharf can have plurals in either -fs or -ves. Hooves, scarves and wharves are more common than the plurals in -fs. Other words ending in -f(e) are regular.

2 other irregular plurals

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
child | children | ox | oxen
foot | feet | penny | pence
goose | geese | person | people
louse | lice | tooth | teeth
man | men | woman | women
mouse | mice |  |

The regular plural pennies can be used to talk about separate penny coins (and one-cent coins in the USA); pence is used to talk about prices and sums of money. Some British people now use pence as a singular (e.g. That'll be three pounds and one pence, please).

Persons is sometimes used as a plural of person in official language. There is also a singular noun people (plural peoples) meaning 'nation'.

3 plural same as singular

Some words ending in -s do not change in the plural. Common examples:

Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural
barracks | barracks | headquarters | headquarters
series | series | works (=factory) | works
crossroads | crossroads | means | means
species | species | Swiss | Swiss

Note that some singular uncountable nouns end in -s. These have no plurals. Examples are news, billiards, draughts (and some other names of games ending in -s), measles (and some other illnesses).

Most words ending in -ics (e.g. mathematics, physics, athletics) are normally singular uncountable and have no plural use.

Too much mathematics is usually taught in schools. (NOT Too many mathematics are ... )

Some words ending in -ics (e.g. politics, statistics) can also have plural uses.

Politics is a complicated business. (BUT What are your politics?)

Statistics is useful in language testing. (BUT The unemployment statistics are disturbing.)

Other nouns which do not change in the plural are craft (meaning 'vehicle'), aircraft, hovercraft, spacecraft, Chinese, Japanese (and other nationality nouns ending in -ese), sheep, deer, fish, and the names of some other living creatures, especially those that are hunted or used for food. Fish has a rare plural fishes, but the normal plural is fish.

Dozen, hundred, thousand, million, stone (= 14 pounds) and foot (= 12 inches) have plurals without -s in some kinds of expressions. For details, see 389.15.

Dice (used in board games) is originally the plural of die, which is not now often used in this sense; in modern English dice is generally used as both singular and plural.

Data is originally the plural of datum, which is not now used. In modern English data can be used either as an uncountable noun (this data is ... ) or as a plural (these data are ... ), with no difference of meaning.

Media is originally the plural of medium. The plural expression the media (meaning 'radio, TV, newspapers, the internet ...') is now quite often used as an uncountable noun with a singular verb.

4 foreign plurals

Some words which come from foreign languages have special plurals. Examples:

Singular | Plural
analysis | analyses (Latin)
appendix | appendices (Latin)
bacterium | bacteria (Latin)
basis | bases (Greek)
cactus | cacti or cactuses (less common)
corpus | corpora (Latin)
crisis | crises (Greek)
criterion | criteria (Greek)
diagnosis | diagnoses (Greek)
formula | formulae (Latin) or formulas
fungus | fungi (Latin) orfunguses
hypothesis | hypotheses (Greek)
kibbutz | kibbutzim (Hebrew)
nucleus | nuclei (Latin)
oasis | oases (Greek)
phenomenon | phenomena (Greek)
radius | radii (Latin)
stimulus | stimuli (Latin)
vertebra | vertebrae (Latin)

Note that some foreign plurals (e.g. agenda, spaghetti) are singular in English (see 148.5).

5 plurals in 's

An apostrophe (') is used before the -s in the plurals of letters of the alphabet, and sometimes in the plurals of dates and abbreviations.

She spelt 'necessary' with two c's.

I loved the 1960's. (the 1960s is more common)

PC's are getting cheaper. (PCs is more common)

It is not correct to use -'s in other plurals, e.g. jean's

6 compound nouns

In noun + adverb combinations, the plural -s is usually added to the noun.

Singular | Plural
passer-by | passers-by
runner-up | runners-up

The plural of mother-in-law and similar words is generally mothers-in-law etc, but some people use mother-in-laws etc; the plural of court martial (= military court or military trial) is either courts martial (more formal) or court martials (less formal).

In noun + noun combinations, the first noun is usually singular in form even if the meaning is plural (e.g. shoe shop). There are some exceptions (see 531).

7 plurals with no singular forms

Cattle is a plural word used to talk collectively about bulls, cows and calves; it has no singular, and cannot be used for counting individual animals (one cannot say, for instance, three cattle).

Many cattle are suffering from a disease called BSE. (NOT Much cattle is ... )

Police, staff and crew are generally used in the same way.

The police are looking for a fair-haired man in his twenties. (NOT The police is looking ... OR A police ... )

The staff are on strike. (BUT A member of staff said ... , NOT A staff ... )

However numbers are sometimes used before these three words (e.g. four staff, six crew).

The expressions the British, the Dutch, the English, the French, the Irish, the Spanish and the Welsh (see 17.2) are also plural, with no singular forms.

In 1581 the Dutch declared their independence from Spain. (BUT A Dutchman came into the shop. NOT A Dutch ... )

Trousers, jeans, pyjamas (AmE pajamas), pants, scales, scissors, glasses, spectacles (meaning 'glasses'), binoculars, pliers, and the names of many similar divided objects are plural, and have no singular forms. (The equivalent words in some other languages are singular.)

Your jeans are too tight. (NOT Your jean is ... )

Where are my glasses? ~ They're on your nose.

To talk about individual items, we can use a pair of (see 430).

Have you got a pair of nail-scissors?

Other common words which are normally plural and uncountable include: arms, clothes (see 133), congratulations, contents, customs (at a frontier), funds (= money), goods, groceries, manners (= social behaviour), the Middle Ages (a period in history), oats (but corn, wheat, barley and rye are singular uncountable), odds (= chances), outskirts, premises (= building), regards, remains, savings, surroundings, thanks, troops.

Congratulations on your new job. (NOT Congratulation ... )

She lives on the outskirts of Cambridge. (NOT ... the outskirt ... )

For cases where plural nouns are used with singular verbs and pronouns (and the opposite), see 526-527.

525 singular and plural (3): pronunciation of plurals

1 nouns ending in /s/, /z/ and other sibilants

After one of the sibilant sounds /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, the plural ending -es is pronounced /ɪz/.

buses /'bʌsɪz/   crashes /'kræʃɪz/   watches /'wɒtʃɪz/

quizzes /'kwɪzɪz/   garages /'ɡærɑ:ʒɪz/   bridges /'brɪdʒɪz/

2 nouns ending in other unvoiced sounds

After any other unvoiced sound (/p/, /f/, /θ/, /t/ or /k/), the plural ending -(e)s is pronounced /s/.

cups /kʌps/   cloths /klɒθs/   books /bʊks/

beliefs /bɪ'li:fs/   plates /pleɪts/

3 nouns ending in other voiced sounds

After vowels, and all voiced consonants except /z/, /ʒ/ and /dʒ/, the plural ending -(e)s is pronounced /z/.

days /deɪz/   clothes /kləʊðz/   legs /leɡz/

boys /bɔɪz/   ends /endz/   dreams /dri:mz/

trees /tri:z/   hills /hɪlz/   songs /sɒŋz/

knives /naɪvz/

4 plurals with irregular pronunciation

Singular | Plural
bath /bɑ:θ/ | baths /bɑθs/ or /bɑðz/
house /haʊs/ | houses /'haʊzɪz/
mouth /maʊθ/ | mouths /maʊθs/ or /maʊðz/
path /pɑ:θ/ | paths /pɑ:θs/ or /pɑ:ðz/
roof /ru:f/ | roofs /ru:fs/ or /ru:vz/
truth /tru:θ/ | truths /tru:θs/ or /tru:ðz/
wreath /ri:θ/ | wreaths /ri:θs/ or /ri:ðz/
youth /ju:θ/ | youths /ju:θs/ or /ju:ðz/

Third person singular forms (e.g. catches, wants, runs) and possessive forms (e.g. George's, Mark's, Joe's) follow the same pronunciation rules as regular plurals.

526 singular and plural (4): singular nouns with plural verbs

1 groups of people: The team is/are ...

In British English, singular words like family, team, government, which refer to groups of people, can have either singular or plural verbs and pronouns.

The team is/are going to lose.

Plural forms are common when the group is seen as a collection of people doing personal things like deciding, hoping or wanting. Singular forms are more common when the group is seen as an impersonal unit. Compare:

- My family have decided to move to York. They're going in April.

The average family has 3.6 members. It is smaller than 50 years ago.

- My firm are wonderful. They do all they can for me.

My firm was founded in the 18th century.

We prefer who as a relative pronoun with plural forms, and which with singular forms. Compare:

The committee, who are hoping to announce important changes, ...

The committee, which is elected at the annual meeting, ...

When a group noun is used with a singular determiner (e.g. a/an, each, every, this, that), singular verbs and pronouns are normal. Compare:

The team are full of enthusiasm.

A team which is full of enthusiasm has a better chance of winning. (More natural than A team who are full ... )

Sometimes singular and plural forms are mixed.

The group gave its first concert in June and they are now planning a tour.

Examples of group nouns which can be used with both singular and plural verbs in British English:

bank | committee | government | public
the BBC | England (the | jury | school
choir | football team) | ministry | staff
class | family | orchestra | team
club | firm | party | union

In American English singular verbs are normal with most of these nouns in all cases (though family can have a plural verb). Plural pronouns can be used.

The team is in Detroit this weekend. They expect to win.

2 A number of people have ...

Many singular quantifying expressions can be used with plural nouns and pronouns; plural verbs are normally used in this case.

A number of people have tried to find the treasure, but they have all failed. (More natural than A number of people has tried ... )

A group of us are going to take a boat through the French canals.

A couple of my friends plan to open a travel agency. (NOT A couple of my friends plans ... )

A lot of social problems are caused by unemployment. (NOT A lot of social problems is caused ... )

The majority of criminals are non-violent.

Some of these people are relations and the rest are old friends.

Half of his students don't understand a word he says. (NOT Half of his students doesn't ... )

For more about a lot and lots, see 333. For the rest, see 501. For (a) few, see 329.

For singular and plural nouns with fractions, see 532.9.

527 singular and plural (5): plural expressions with singular verbs

1 amounts and quantities: that five pounds

When we talk about amounts and quantities we usually use singular determiners, verbs and pronouns, even if the noun is plural.

Where is that five pounds I lent you? (NOT Where are those five pounds ... ?)

Twenty miles is a long way to walk.

We've only got five litres of petrol left. ~ That isn't enough.

2 calculations

Singular verbs are often possible after plural number subjects in spoken calculations.

Two and two is/are four.

Ten times five is fifty. (OR Ten fives are fifty.)

For more about spoken calculations, see 389.22-23.

3 more than one

More than one is generally used with a singular noun and verb.

More than one person is going to have to find a new job.

4 one of ...

Expressions beginning one of normally have a plural noun and a singular verb.

One of my friends is getting married. (NOT One of my friends are ... )

For singular and plural verbs in relative clauses after one of ... , see 529.1.

5 and

Some expressions joined by and have singular determiners, verbs and pronouns. This happens when the two nouns are used together so often that we think of them as a single idea.

This gin and tonic isn't very strong, is it?

Your toast and marmalade is on the table.

6 countries and organisations

Plural names of countries usually have singular verbs and pronouns.

The United States is anxious to improve its image in Latin America.

Plural names of organisations may also have singular verbs and pronouns.

Consolidated Fruitgrowers has just taken over Universal Foodstores.

528 singular and plural (6): singular they

1 Somebody left their umbrella

They/ them/ their is often used to refer to a singular indefinite person. This is common after a person, anybody/one, somebody/one, nobody/one, whoever, each, every, either, neither and no. They has a plural verb in this case.

If a person doesn't want to go on living, they are often very difficult to help.

If anybody calls, take their name and ask them to call again later.

Somebody left their umbrella in the office. Would they please collect it?

Nobody was late, were they? Whoever comes, tell them I'm not in.

Tell each person to help themselves to what they want.

Every individual thinks they're different from everybody else.

This singular use of they/ them/ their is convenient when the person referred to could be either male or female (as in the examples above). He or she, him or her and his or her are clumsy, especially when repeated, and many people dislike the traditional use of he/ him/ his in this situation (see 222).

However, they/them/their can also be used when the person's sex is known.

Two examples from interviews:

I swear more when I'm talking to a boy, because I'm not afraid of shocking them.

No girl should have to wear school uniform, because it makes them look like a sack of potatoes.

They/them/their is sometimes used for a definite person who is not identified.

I had a friend in Paris, and they had to go to hospital for a month.

2 correctness

This use of they/them/their has existed for centuries, and is perfectly correct. It is most common in an informal style, but can also be found in formal written English. Here is an example from a British passport application form:

Dual nationality: if the child possesses the nationality or citizenship of another country they may lose this when they get a British Passport.

529 singular and plural (7): mixed structures

In some complex structures, the same verb seems to belong with two different expressions, one singular and the other plural.

1 one of the few women who have climbed Everest

After expressions like one of the ... , singular and plural verbs are both used in relative clauses beginning who, which or that.

She's one of the few women who have/has climbed Everest.

This is one of those books that are/is read by everybody.

Strictly speaking, a plural verb is correct (to agree with the few women who or those books that). However, singular verbs are also very common in these structures. More examples:

One of the things that really make/makes me angry is people who don't answer letters.

We've got one of those Japanese cars that never break/breaks down.

2 A serious problem is wasps

In English a verb normally agrees with the subject of a sentence, not with a following complement.

  S     V     C  

The biggest timewaster is meetings.

(NOT The biggest time waster are meetings.)

A serious problem in our garden is wasps.

(NOT A serious problem ... are wasps.)

However, if the subject is a long way from the verb, people sometimes make the verb agree with a complement

The most interesting thing on radio and television last weekend, without any doubt, was/were the tennis championships.

This often happens, too, when the subject is a relative what-clause, especially when the complement is long.

What I am most interested in is/are your immediate personal reactions.

What we need is/are a few bright young engineers.

For singular and plural verbs after interrogative what and who, see 532.3.

3 singular subject, plural continuation, plural verb

When a singular subject is modified by a following plural expression, people sometimes use a plural verb. This is not usually considered correct.

Nobody except his best friends like him. (More correct: Nobody ... likes him.)

A good knowledge of three languages are necessary for this job. (More correct: A good knowledge ... is ... )

For singular or plural after kind(s), sort(s), type(s) etc, see 551.

530 singular and plural (8): distributive plural

1 people doing the same thing

To talk about several people each doing the same thing, English usually prefers a plural noun for the repeated idea.

Tell the kids to bring raincoats to school tomorrow. (More natural than Tell the kids to bring a raincoat ... )

Plural forms are almost always used in this case if there are possessives.

Tell the children to blow their noses. (NOT ... to blow their nose.)

Six people lost their lives in the accident.

Uncountable nouns cannot of course be used in the plural.

They were all anxious to increase their knowledge. (NOT ... their knowledges.)

2 repeated events

In descriptions of repeated single events, singular and plural nouns are both possible. When no details are given, plural nouns are more natural.

I often get headaches. (NOT I often get a headache.)

She sometimes goes for rides over the hills.

When details of the time or situation are given, nouns are often singular.

I often get a headache when I've been working on the computer.

She often goes for a ride over the hills before supper.

Singular nouns may also be used to avoid misunderstanding.

I sometimes throw a stone into the river and wish for good luck. (NOT I sometimes throw stones ... - only one stone is thrown each time.)

To refer to the time of repeated events, both singular and plural expressions are often possible with little difference of meaning.

We usually go and see my mother on Saturday(s).

He's not at his best in the morning(s).

3 generalisations and rules

In generalisations and rules, singular and plural nouns are both possible.

We use a past participle in a perfect verb form. (OR We use past participles in perfect verb forms.)

All documents must be accompanied by a translation of the original. (OR All documents must be accompanied by translations of the originals.)

Mixtures of singular and plural are possible.

Subjects agree with their verb.

Children may resemble both their father and their mother in different ways.

This often happens with fixed singular expressions like at the beginning.

Discourse markers usually come at the beginning of sentences.

531 singular and plural (9): noun + noun

1 first noun singular: shoe shop

In noun + noun structures (see 385-386), the first noun is normally singular in form even if it has a plural meaning.

a shoe shop (= a shop that sells shoes)

a toothbrush (= a brush for teeth) 

trouser pockets (= pockets in trousers)

a ticket office (= an office that sells tickets)

2 exceptions

Some nouns are plural in this structure. These include nouns which have no singular form (like clothes), nouns which are not used in the singular with the same meaning (like customs), and some nouns which are more often used in the plural than in the singular (like savings). In some cases, e.g. antique(s), drug(s), usage is divided, and both singular and plural forms are found. In general, plurals are becoming more common in this structure. Examples:

a clothes shop | a drinks cabinet
a glasses case | a goods train (British English)
a customs officer | a sports car
arms control | a greeting(s) card
a savings account | an antique(s) dealer/shop
the accounts department | the drug(s) problem
the sales department | the arrival(s) hall (at an airport)
the outpatients department (of a hospital) |

Note also that singular nouns ending in -ics can be used before other nouns.

athletics training

an economics degree

We use the plurals men and women to modify plural nouns when they have a 'subject' meaning; man and woman are used to express an 'object' meaning. Compare:

- men drivers (= men who drive)

women pilots (= women who fly planes)

- man-eaters (= lions or tigers that eat people)

woman-haters (= people who hate women)

532 singular and plural (10): other points

1 uncountable nouns: hair, baggage etc

Certain English singular uncountable nouns correspond to plural nouns in some other languages.

Your hair is very pretty. (NOT Your hairs are ... )

My baggage has been lost. (NOT My baggages have ... )

For a list of words of this kind. see 148.3.

For plural uncountables, see 149.5.

2 co-ordinated subjects: A and B, A or B, A as well as B, etc

When two singular subjects are joined by and, the verb is normally plural.

Alice and Bob are going to be late.

But note that some phrases with and are treated like single ideas, and used with singular verbs (see 527.5).

Your toast and marmalade is on the table.

When two subjects are joined by as well as, together with or a similar expression, the verb is usually singular if the first subject is singular.

The Prime Minister, as well as several Cabinet Ministers, believes in a tough financial policy.

The Managing Director, together with his heads of department, is preparing a new budget.

When two subjects are joined by or the verb is usually singular if the second subject is singular, and plural if it is plural. Compare:

There's no room - either two chairs or a table has got to be moved.

There's no room - either a table or two chairs have got to be moved.

When two singular subjects are joined by neither ... nor, the verb is normally singular in a formal style, but can be plural in an informal style.

Neither she nor her husband has arrived. (formal)

Neither she nor her husband have arrived. (informal)

3 who and what

When who and what are used to ask for the subject of a clause, they most often have singular verbs, even if the question expects a plural answer.

Who is working tomorrow? ~ Phil, Lucy and Shareena (are working tomorrow). (More natural than Who are working tomorrow?)

Who was at the party? (More natural than Who were at the party?)

What lives in those little holes?~ Rabbits (do). (NOT What live ... )

When who and what are used to ask for the complement of a clause, they can have plural verbs.

Who are your closest friends? ~ (My closest friends are) Naomi and Bridget.

What are your politics? ~ (My politics are) extreme left-wing.

Relative what-clauses are normally the subject of a singular verb.

What she needs is friends. (More natural than What she needs are friends.)

However, plural verbs are often used before longer plural complements, especially if what is a long way from the verb (see 529).

What we need most of all are some really new ideas.

4 here's, there's and where's

In an informal style, here's, there's and where's are common with plural nouns.

Here's your keys.   There's some children at the door.

Where's those books I lent you?

5 none, neither and either

When none, neither and either are followed by of + plural noun/pronoun, they are normally used with singular verbs. Plural verbs are possible in an informal style.

None of the cures really works.

None of the cures really work. (informal)

Neither of my brothers has/have been outside England.

Has/Have either of them been seen recently?

6 another, a/an + adjective

Plural expressions of quantity can be used with another (see 54) and with a/an + adjective.

I want to stay for another three weeks.

We'll need an extra ten pounds.

He's been waiting for a good two hours.

She spent a happy ten minutes looking through the photos.

I've had a very busy three days.

Note also the expression a good many/few + plural (informal).

I've lain awake a good many nights worrying about you.

I bet that house could tell a good few stories.

7 kind, sort and type

In an informal style, we sometimes mix singular and plural forms when we use demonstratives with kind, sort or type. For details, see 55l.

I don't like those kind of boots.

8 every (frequency)

Every (which is normally used with singular nouns) can be used before plural expressions in measurements of frequency.

I go to Ireland every six weeks.

9 fractions

Fractions between 1 and 2 are normally used with plural nouns (see 389.2).

It weighs one and a half tons. (NOT ... one and a half ton.)

The house has about 1.75 hectares of land.

533 slang

1 What is slang?

'Slang' is a very informal kind of vocabulary, used mostly in speech by people who know each other well. Examples:

Can you lend me some cash? (money)   My shoelace has bust. (broken)

He's a real prat. (fool)   Those boots are real cool. (fashionable)

Let's chill out. (relax)   How are the kids? (children)

Slang expressions are not usually written, and not used in formal kinds of communication.

2 strong feelings

Many English slang expressions relate to things that people feel strongly about (e.g. sex, family and emotional relationships, drink, drugs, conflict between social groups, work, physical and mental illness, death).

She's got really nice tits. (breasts)

I spent the weekend at my gran's. (grandmother's)

God, we got smashed last night. (drunk)

Prods out! (Protestants)

Can you get that sitrep to the MD by five? (situation report; Managing Director)

I've got some sort of bug. (illness)

He's lost his marbles. (gone mad)

When I kick the bucket, I want you all to have a big party. (die)

Slang can be used in order to be offensive.

Shut your gob! (mouth)

For more about 'taboo' words for subjects that some people find shocking, see 575.

3 group membership; using slang

Many slang expressions (e.g. cash, kids) are widely used. However, some slang expressions are only used by members of particular social and professional groups, and nearly all slang is used between people who know each other well or share the same social background. So it is usually a mistake for 'outsiders' (including foreigners) to try deliberately to use slang. This can give the impression that they are claiming membership of a group that they do not belong to. There is also the danger that the slang may be out of date - some kinds of slang go out of fashion quickly, and when it gets into books it may already be dead. It is best for learners to avoid slang unless they are really sure of its use. If they start becoming accepted as part of an English-speaking community, they will learn to use the community's slang naturally and correctly along with the rest of their language.

534 small and little

Small simply refers to size. It is the opposite of big or large (see 106).

Could I have a small brandy, please?

You're too small to be a policeman.

The adjective little usually expresses some kind of emotion.

Poor little thing - come here and let me look after you.

What's he like?~ Oh, he's a funny little man.

What's that nasty little boy doing in our garden?

They've bought a pretty little house in the country.

In a few fixed expressions, little is used in the same way as small or short.

little finger   a little while

the little hand of a clock   a little way

In British English little is unusual in 'predicative' position (after a verb), and comparative and superlative forms are not normally used.

The puppy was so small and sweet. (More natural than The puppy was so little ... )

He's the smallest baby I've ever seen. (More natural than ... the littlest baby ... )

For little used as a determiner meaning 'not much' (e.g. There's little hope), see 329.

535 smell

1 British and American forms

In British English, regular and irregular past tenses and participles are both common: smelled and smelt. American forms are usually regular.

2 link verb

Smell can be used as a 'link verb' (see 328), followed by an adjective or noun, to say how something smells. Progressive forms are not used.

Those roses smell beautiful. (NOT ... smell beautifully.)

The soup smells funny. What's in it? (NOT ... is smelling funny ... )

Before a noun, smell of and smell like are used.

The railway carriage smelt of beer and old socks.

His aftershave smelt like an explosion in a flower shop.

Smell is sometimes used to mean 'smell bad'.

That dog smells.

3 transitive verb: 'perceive'

Smell can be used with an object, to say what we perceive with our noses.

Progressive forms are not used. We often use can smell (see 125).

As we walked into the house, we smelt something burning.

I can smell supper.

4 transitive verb: 'investigate'

Another transitive use is to say that we are using our noses to find out something. Progressive forms can be used.

What are you doing? ~ I'm smelling the meat to see if it's still OK

536 so: adverb meaning 'like this/that'

1 after seem, appear etc

So can be used in a formal style in a few cases to mean 'like this/that', 'in this/that way'. This happens, for example, after seem, appear, remain, more and less.

Will the business make a loss this year?~ It appears so.

The weather is stormy, and will remain so over the weekend.

She was always nervous, and after her accident she became even more so.

I read the front page very carefully, and the rest of the paper less so.

2 not used in other cases

In other cases, so is not normally used adverbially to mean 'like this/that', 'in this/that way'.

Look - hold it up in the air like this. (NOT ... hold it up in the air so.)

When he laughs like that I want to scream. (NOT When he laughs so ... )

I don't think we should do it in that way. (NOT do it so.)

He says he is ill and he looks it. (NOT ... he looks so.)

For so with say and tell, see 540.

For so with hope, believe etc, see 539.

For so am I etc, see 541.

For do so, see 162.

537 so (conjunction) and then

So and then can both be used in replies, to mean 'since that is so', 'it follows from what you have said'.

It's more expensive to travel on Friday. ~ Then/So I'll leave on Thursday.

I'll be needing the car. ~ Then/So I suppose I'll have to take a taxi.

So (but not then) can also be used when the same speaker connects two ideas, to mean 'it follows from what I have said'.

It's more expensive to travel on Friday, so I'll leave on Thursday. (NOT ... Then I'll leave on Thursday.)

For so used like and, see 157.14.

538 so (degree adverb): so tired, so fast

1 meaning

So means 'that much' or 'to that extent'. It is used when we are talking about a high degree of some quality - in situations where very is also a suitable word.

I'm sorry you're so tired. (= I know you're very tired, and I'm sorry.)

It was so cold that we couldn't go out. (= It was very cold weather, and because of that we couldn't go out.)

I wish she didn't drive so fast.

2 so and very

Very (see 611) is used when we are giving new information. So is mainly used to refer to information which has already been given, which is already known, or which is obvious. Compare:

- You're very late. (giving new information)

I'm sorry I'm so late. (referring to information which is already known)

- It was very warm in Scotland. (giving new information)

I didn't think it would be so warm. (referring to information which is already known)

3 emphatic use

In an informal style, so can also be used like very to give new information, when the speaker wishes to emphasise what is said. This structure is rather like an exclamation (see 195).

He's so bad-tempered! (= How bad-tempered he is!)

You're so right!

4 so ... that

We use so, not very, before that-clauses.

It was so cold that we stopped playing. (NOT It was very cold that we stopped playing.)

He spoke so fast that nobody could understand. (NOT He spoke very fast that ... )

5 before adjectives and adverbs

We can use so before an adjective alone (without a noun) or an adverb.

The milk was so good that we couldn't stop drinking it.

Why are you driving so fast?

So is not used with adjective + noun.

I didn't expect such terrible weather. (NOT ... so terrible weather.)

I enjoyed my stay in your country, which is so beautiful. (NOT I enjoyed my stay in your so beautiful country.)

For such, see 569.

6 so much, etc

We can use so much and so many (see 542), so few and so little with or without nouns.

I've bought so many new books I don't know when I'll read them.

There were so few interesting people there that we decided to go home.

I've read so much and learnt so little.

7 so and so much

We use so, not so much, before adjectives without nouns (see paragraph 5 above). Compare:

- She had so much heavy luggage that she couldn't carry it.

Her luggage was so heavy that she couldn't carry it. (NOT Her luggage was so much heavy ... )

- I've never seen so much beautiful jewellery.

The jewellery is so beautiful! (NOT ... so much beautiful!)

But we use so much, not so, before comparatives.

I'm glad you're feeling so much better. (NOT ... so better.)

8 so ... as to ...

There is a structure with so followed by adjective + as to + infinitive. This is formal and not very common.

Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? (= ... kind enough to ... ) (NOT Would you be so kind and ... OR Would you be so kind to ... )

9 so ... a ...

There is another rather formal structure with so + adjective + a/an + noun (see 14).

I had never before met so gentle a person. (= ... such a gentle person.)

539 so and not with hope, believe etc

1 instead of that-clauses.

We often use so after believe, hope, expect, imagine, suppose, guess, reckon, think, be afraid, instead of repeating words in a that-clause.

Is Alex here?~ I think so. (NOT ... I think that Alex is here.)

Do you think we'll be in time? ~ I hope so. (NOT I hope.)

Did you lose?~ I'm afraid so.

We do not use so before a that-clause.

I hope that we'll have good weather. (NOT I hope so, that we'll have good weather.)

Note the special use of I thought so to mean 'my suspicions were correct'.

Empty your pockets. Ah, I thought so! You've been stealing biscuits again.

So is not used after know (see 313).

You're late. ~ I know. OR I know that. (NOT I know so.)

2 negative structures

We can make these expressions negative in two ways.

affirmative verb + not

Did you win? ~ I'm afraid not.

We won't be in time for the train. ~ No, I suppose not.

negative verb + so

You won't be here tomorrow? ~ I don't suppose so.

Will it rain? ~ I don't expect so.

Hope and be afraid are always used in the first structure.

I hope not. (NOT I don't hope so.)

Think is more common in the second structure.

I don't think so. (More common than I think not.)

3 so at the beginning of a clause

We can use so at the beginning of a clause with say, hear, understand, tell, believe and a number of other verbs. This structure is used to say how the speaker learnt something.

It's going to be a cold winter, or so the newspaper says.

Mary's getting married. ~ Yes, so I heard.

The Professor's ill. ~ So I understand.

For so after tell and say, see 540.

540 so with say and tell

1 instead of that-clauses

So can be used after say and tell instead of repeating information in a that-clause.

She's going to be the next president. Everybody says so. (= ... Everybody says that she's going to be the next president.)

You've got to clean the car. ~ Who says so?

Taxes are going up. Bob told me so.

Note that so is used in this way mostly when we are talking about the authority for statements, about reasons why we should believe them. When we simply want to identify the speaker, we prefer that. Compare:

Jane's crazy. ~ Who says so? ~ Dr Bannister.

Jane's crazy. ~ Who said that? ~ I did.

For so at the beginning of a clause (e.g. so the newspaper says), see 539.3.

2 I told you so

I told you so usually means '1 warned you, but you wouldn't listen to me'.

Mummy, I've broken my train. ~ I told you so. You shouldn't have tried to ride on it.

3 other verbs

So cannot be used after all verbs of saying. We cannot say, for example, She promised me so.

541 so have I, so am I etc

1 so + auxiliary + subject

We can use so to mean 'also', before auxiliary verb + subject. The structure is used to answer or add to what came before. Note the word order.

Louise can dance beautifully, and so can her sister.

I've lost their address. ~ So have I.

The same structure is possible with non-auxiliary be and have.

I was tired, and so were the others.

I have a headache. ~ So have I.

After a clause with no auxiliary verb, we use do/does/did.

He just wants the best for his country. ~ So did Hitler.

We do not normally use a more complete verb phrase in this structure. We can say, for example, So can her sister, but not So can her sister dance.

2 so + subject + auxiliary

So can also be followed by subject + auxiliary verb (note the word order) to express surprised agreement.

It's raining. ~ Why, so it is!

You've just put the teapot in the fridge. ~ So I have!

For neither/nor am I etc, see 374.

542 so much and so many

1 the difference

The difference between so much and so many is the same as between much and many (see 357). So much is used with singular (uncountable) nouns; so many is used with plurals.

I had never seen so much food in my life.

She had so many children that she didn't know what to do. (NOT ... so much children ... )

We use so, not so much, to modify adjectives and adverbs (see 538.5,6).

You're so beautiful. (NOT You're so much beautiful.)

But so much is used before comparatives (see 140).

She's so much more beautiful now.

2 so much/many without a noun

We can drop a noun after so much/ many, if the meaning is clear.

I can't eat all that meat - there's so much!

I was expecting a few phone calls, but not so many.

3 so much as an adverb

So much can be used as an adverb.

I wish you didn't smoke so much.

4 special structures with so much

We can use not so much ... as or not so much ... but to make corrections and clarifications.

It wasn't so much his appearance I liked as his personality.

It's not so much that I don't want to go, but I just haven't got time.

In negative and if-clauses, so much as can be used to mean 'even'.

He didn't so much as say thank you, after all we'd done for him.

If he so much as looks at another woman, I'll kill him.

543 so that and in order that

1 purpose

These structures are used to talk about purpose. So that is more common than in order that, especially in an informal style. They are often followed by auxiliary verbs such as can or will; may is more formal.

She's staying here for six months so that she can perfect her English.

I'm putting it in the oven now so that it'll be ready by seven o'clock.

We send monthly reports in order that they may have full information.

In an informal style, that can be dropped after so (see 584).

I've come early so I can talk to you.

2 present tenses for future

Present tenses are sometimes used for the future.

I'll send the letter express so that she gets / she'll get it before Tuesday.

I'm going to make an early start so that I don't/won't get stuck in the traffic.

We must write to him, in order that he does/will not feel that we are hiding things.

3 past structures

In sentences about the past, would, could or should are generally used with verbs after so that / in order that. Might is possible in a very formal style.

Mary talked to the shy girl so that she wouldn't feel left out.

I took my golf clubs so that I could play at the weekend.

They met on a Saturday in order that everybody should be free to attend.

He built a chain of castles so that he might control the whole country.

For the infinitive structures in order to and so as to, see 289.

For so ... that expressing result, see 538.4.

For lest meaning 'so that ... not', see 321.

544 so-and-so; so-so

1 so-and-so

This informal expression is used when one cannot remember a name.

What's happened to old so-and-so? (= ... what's his name?)

It can also replace a swearword or an insult.

She's an old so-and-so.

2 so-so

This informal expression means 'neither good nor bad.'

How are you feeling? ~ So-so. (NOT ... So and so.)

Was the concert any good? ~ So-so.

545 'social' language

Every language has fixed expressions which are used on particular social occasions - for example when people meet, leave each other, go on a journey, sit down to meals and so on. Here are some of the most important English expressions of this kind.

1 introductions

Common ways of introducing strangers to each other are:

John, do you know Helen? Helen, this is my friend John.

Sally, I don't think you've met Elaine.

I don't think you two know each other, do you?

Can/May I introduce John Willis? (more formal)

When people are introduced, they usually say How do you do? (formal), Hello, or Hi (informal). Americans often say How are you? Note that How do you do? is not a question, and the normal reply is How do you do? (It does not mean the same, in British English, as How are you?) Another possible response is Glad/ Pleased to meet you. People who are introduced often shake hands.

For the use of first names, surnames and titles, see 363.

2 greetings

When meeting people (formal):

(Good) morning/ afternoon/ evening.

When meeting people (informal):

Hello. Hi. (very informal)

When leaving people:

Good morning/ afternoon/ evening. (very formal, unusual)

Goodnight. Goodbye.

Bye. (informal)   Bye-bye. (often used to and by children)

Cheers. (informal - British only)   Take care. (informal)

See you. (informal)   See you later / tomorrow / next week etc. (informal)

It was nice to meet / meeting you.

Note that Good day is very unusual, and Goodnight is used only when leaving people, not when meeting them.

3 asking about health etc

When we meet people we know, we often ask politely about their health or their general situation.

How are you? | How's it going? (informal)
How are things? / How's things? (informal) | How (are) you doing?

Formal answers:

Very well, thank you. And you?   Fine, thank you.

Informal answers:

Fine/Great, thanks.

All right.

(It) could be worse.

OK.

Not too bad.

Mustn't grumble.

So-so. (NOT So and so.)

British people do not usually ask How are you? when they are introduced to people. And neither British nor American people begin letters to strangers by asking about health (see 146).

4 special greetings

Greetings for special occasions are:

Happy birthday! (OR Many happy returns!)

Happy New Year / Easter!

Happy/Merry Christmas! Happy anniversary!

Congratulations on your exam results / new job etc (NOT Congratulation on ... )

5 small talk

British people often begin polite conversations by talking about the weather.

Nice day, isn't it?~ Lovely.

6 getting people's attention

Excuse me! is commonly used to attract somebody's attention, or to call a waiter in a restaurant. We do not normally say Excuse me, sir/madam (see 363.2).

7 apologies

British people say Excuse me before interrupting or disturbing somebody, and Sorry after doing so. Compare:

Excuse me. Could I get past? Oh, sorry, did I step on your foot?

Excuse me, could you tell me the way to the station?

Americans also use Excuse me to apologise after disturbing somebody.

I beg your pardon is a more formal way of saying 'Sorry'.

I beg your pardon. I didn't realise this was your seat.

8 asking people to repeat

If people do not hear or understand what is said, they may say Sorry? (BrE), What? (informal), (I beg your) pardon? or Pardon me? (AmE).

Mike's on the phone. ~ Sorry? ~ I said Mike's on the phone.

See you tomorrow. ~ What? ~ See you tomorrow.

You're going deaf ~ I beg your pardon?

9 journeys etc

Common ways of wishing people a good journey are:

Have a good trip. Have a good journey. (BrE)

Safe journey home. (BrE)

After a journey (for example when we meet people at the airport or station), we may say:

Did you have a good journey/trip/flight?

How was the journey/trip/flight?

If somebody is leaving for an evening out or some kind of pleasant event, people might say Have a good time! or Enjoy yourself! (especially in American English sometimes just Enjoy!). Good luck! is used before examinations or other difficult or dangerous events.

When people return home, their friends or family may say

Welcome back/ home.

10 holidays

Before somebody starts a holiday, we may say:

Have a good holiday. (AmE ... vacation.) OR Have a good time.

When the holiday is over, we may say:

Did you have a good holiday/vacation?

11 meals

We do not have fixed expressions for the beginnings and ends of meals. It is common for guests or family members to say something complimentary about the food during the meal (for example This is very nice), and after (for example That was lovely/delicious; thank you very much). Some religious people say 'grace' (a short prayer) before and after meals. Waiters often say Enjoy your meal after serving a customer.

For the names of meals, see 347.

12 drinking

When people begin drinking alcoholic drinks socially, they often raise their glasses and say something. Common expressions are Cheers! (BrE) and Your health! When we drink to celebrate an occasion (such as a birthday, a wedding or a promotion), we often say Here's to ... !

Here's to Betty!

Here's to the new job! Here's to the happy couple!

13 sending good wishes

Typical expressions are Give my best wishes/regards/greetings/love to X, Remember me to X, Say hello to X for me. When the wishes are passed on, common expressions are X sends his/her best wishes/regards etc, X says hello.

14 sympathy

Common formulae in letters of sympathy (for example on somebody's death) are I was very/terribly/extremely sorry to hear about ... and Please accept my deepest sympathy.

15 invitations and visits

Invitations often begin:

Would you like to ... ?

Possible replies:

Thank you very much. That would be very nice/lovely. (formal)

Thanks, that would be great. (informal)

Sorry. I'm afraid I'm not free.

It is normal to thank people for hospitality at the moment of leaving their houses.

Thank you very much. That was a wonderful evening.

16 offers and replies

Offers often begin Would you like ... ? or Can/May I get/offer you ... ? (more formal). Offers to do things for people can begin Would you like me to ... ?, Can/May I ... ? or Shall I ... ? (mainly BrE). Typical replies are Yes please; No thank you; Thanks, I'd love some; I'd love to; That's very nice/kind of you.

Note that thank you can be used for accepting as well as refusing.

17 asking for things

We normally ask for things by using yes/no questions. (see 435).

Could you lend me a pen? (NOT Please lend me a pen.)

18 handing over things

We do not have an expression which is automatically used when we hand over things. We sometimes say Here you are, especially when we want to attract people's attention to the fact that we are passing something to them.

Have you got a map of London? ~ I think so. Yes, here you are. ~ Thanks.

There you go is also possible in this situation, especially in AmE.

19 thanks

Common ways of thanking people are:

Thank you.   Thanks very much/a lot. (NOT Thank you a lot.)

Thank you very much.   Cheers. (informal BrE)

Thanks. (informal)

Possible replies to thanks are:

Not at all.   You're welcome.

Don't mention it.   That's (quite) all right.

That's OK (informal)   No problem. (informal)

But note that British people do not always reply to thanks, especially thanks for small things.

For more information about thanking and the use of please, see 433.

20 sleep

When somebody goes to bed, people often say Sleep well. In the morning, we may ask Did you sleep well? or How did you sleep?

For expressions used when telephoning, see 578.

546 some

1 meaning: indefinite quantity/number

Some is a determiner (see 154). It often suggests an indefinite quantity or number, and is used when it is not important to say exactly how much/many we are thinking of.

I need some new clothes. Would you like some tea?

2 pronunciation

When some has this indefinite meaning, it usually has a 'weak' pronunciation /s(ə)m/ before (adjective +) noun.

some /s(ə)m/ new clothes   some /s(ə)m/ tea

For more about 'strong' and 'weak' pronunciations, see 616.

3 some and any

With this meaning, some is most common in affirmative clauses, and in questions which expect or encourage the answer 'Yes'. In other cases, any is generally used. For details, see 547. Compare:

- There are some children at the front door.

Do you mind if I put some music on?

- Did you meet any interesting people on holiday?

She hasn't got any manners.

4 some and a/an

Some (in this sense) is used in similar ways to the indefinite article a/an (see 65). However, it is not normally used with the same kind of nouns. Compare:

I need a new coat. (singular countable noun) (NOT ... some new coat.)

I need some new shirts. (plural countable noun)

I need some help. (uncountable noun)

5 when some is not used

With an uncountable or plural noun, some usually suggests the idea of an indefinite (but not very large) quantity or number. When there is no idea of a limited quantity or number, we do not usually use some. For details, see 67. Compare:

- We've planted some roses in the garden. (a limited number)

I like roses. (no idea of number)

- Bring some food in case we get hungry.

The President has appealed for food for the earthquake victims.

6 some and some of; some with no following noun

Before another determiner (article, demonstrative or possessive word) or a pronoun, we use some of. Compare:

- I've got tickets for some concerts next month. (NOT ... some of concerts ... )

Pete's coming to some of the concerts. (NOT ... some the concerts ... )

- Some people want to get to sleep. (NOT ... some of people ... )

Some of us want to get to sleep. (NOT Some us ... )

Nouns can be dropped after some, if the meaning is clear.

I've got too many strawberries. Would you like some?

Before of, or with no following noun, some is pronounced /sʌm/.

some /sʌm/ of us   Would you like some /sʌm/?

7 contrast with others etc

Some (pronounced /sʌm/) can have a more emphatic meaning, contrasting with others, all or enough.

Some people like the sea; others prefer the mountains.

Some of us were late, but we were all there by ten o'clock.

I've got some money, but not enough.

8 an unknown person or thing

Some (/sʌm/) can refer to an unknown person or thing (usually with a singular countable noun).

Some idiot has taken the bath plug.

There must be some job I could do.

She's living in some village in Yorkshire.

We can use this structure to suggest that we are not interested in somebody or something, or that we do not think much of him/her/it.

Mary's gone to America to marry some sheep farmer or other.

I don't want to spend my life doing some boring little office job.

9 some party!

In informal speech, some can show enthusiastic appreciation.

It was some party!

10 with numbers

Some (/sʌm/) with a number suggests that the number is high or impressive.

We have exported some four thousand tons of bootlaces this year.

For somebody and anybody, something and anything etc, see 548.

For some time, sometime and sometimes, see 549.

547 some and any

1 indefinite quantities

Both some (see 546) and any (see 55) can refer to an indefinite quantity or number. They are used when it is not easy, or not important, to say exactly how much/many we are thinking of.

I need to buy some new clothes.   Is there any milk left?

2 the difference

Some is most common in affirmative clauses. Any (used in this sense) is a 'non-affirmative' word (see 381), and is common in questions and negatives. Compare:

I want some razor blades. (NOT I want any razor blades.)

Have you got any razor blades?

Sorry, I haven't got any razor blades. (NOT Sorry, I haven't got some ... )

For other uses of any, see 55.

3 some in questions

We use some in questions if we expect people to answer 'Yes', or want to encourage them to say 'Yes' - for example in offers and requests.

Have you brought some paper and a pen? (The hearer is expected to bring them.)

Shouldn't there be some instructions with it?

Would you like some more meat?

Could I have some brown rice, please?

Have you got some glasses that I could borrow?

4 any in affirmative clauses

We use any in affirmative clauses after words that have a negative or limiting meaning: for example never, hardly, without, little.

You never give me any help.   I forgot to get any bread.

There's hardly any tea left. We got there without any trouble.

There is little point in doing any more work now.

For the 'free choice' use of any (e.g. Any child could do this). see 55.

5 if-clauses

Both some and any are common in if-clauses.

If you want some/any help, let me know.

Sometimes any is used to suggest 'if there is/are any'.

Any cars parked in this road will be towed away. (= If there are any cars parked in this road, they will ... )

548 somebody, someone, anybody, anyone etc

1 -body and -one

There is no significant difference between somebody and someone, anybody and anyone, everybody and everyone or nobody and no one. The -one forms are more common in writing; the -body forms are more frequent in speech in British English.

2 some- and any-

The differences between somebody and anybody, something and anything, somewhere and anywhere etc are the same as the differences between some and any (see 547 for details). Compare:

- There's somebody at the door.   - Can I get you something to drink?

Did anybody telephone?   If you need something/anything, just shout.

- Let's go somewhere nice for dinner.

I don't want to go anywhere too expensive.

3 singular

When these words are subjects they are used with singular verbs.

Everybody likes her. (NOT Everybody like her.)

Is everything ready? (NOT Are everything ready?)

Somebody normally refers to only one person. Compare:

There's somebody outside who wants to talk to you.

There are some people outside who want to talk to you.

4 use of they

They, them and their are often used with a singular meaning to refer back to somebody etc (see 528).

If anybody wants a ticket for the concert, they can get it from my office.

There's somebody at the door. ~ Tell them I'm busy.

Someone left their umbrella on the bus.   Nobody phoned, did they?

5 complementation: somebody nice, etc

Somebody etc can be followed by adjectives or adverbial expressions.

I hope he marries somebody nice.

She's going to meet someone in the Ministry.

I feel like eating something hot.

Let's go somewhere quiet this weekend.

They can also be followed by else (see 183).

Mary - are you in love with somebody else?

I don't like this place - let's go somewhere else.

Note also the informal use of much after any- and no-.

We didn't do anything much yesterday.

There's nothing much on TV tonight.

6 someplace

Someplace is common in informal American English.

Let's go someplace quiet.

7 anyone and any one; everyone and every one

Anyone means the same as anybody; any one means 'any single one (person or thing)'. Compare:

Does anyone know where Celia lives?

You can borrow any one book at a time.

There is a similar difference between everyone and every one. Compare:

Everyone had a good time at the party.

There aren't any cakes left - they've eaten every one.

For the difference between no one and none, see 380.

For question tags after everything and nothing, see 488.

For some time, sometime and sometimes, see 549.

549 some time, sometime and sometimes

Some time (with two stresses: /'sʌm 'taɪm/) means 'quite a long time'.

I'm afraid it'll take some time to repair your car.

She's lived in Italy for some time, so she speaks Italian quite well.

Sometime (/'sʌmtaɪm/) refers to an indefinite time, usually in the future; it often means 'one day'. It can also be written as two words: some time.

Let's have dinner together sometime next week.

When will I get married - this year, next year, sometime, never?

Sometimes (/'sʌmtaɪmz/) is an adverb of frequency (see 24). It means 'on some occasions', 'more than once' (past, present or future).

I sometimes went skiing when I lived in Germany.

Sometimes, in the long winter evenings, I just sit and think about life.

For sometimes and once, see 393

550 soon, early and quickly

1 soon

Soon means 'a short time after now' or 'a short time after then'.

Get well soon. (NOT Get well early.)

The work was hard at the beginning, but she soon got used to it.

For no sooner ... than, see 233.

2 early

The adverb early means 'near the beginning of the time-period that we are thinking about'. It does not usually mean 'a short time after now/then'.

Early that week, Luke was called to the police station.

We usually take our holidays early in the year. (NOT ... soon in the year.)

I usually get up early and go to bed early. (NOT I usually get up soon ... )

Sometimes early means 'before the expected time'.

The plane arrived twenty minutes early.

Early can also be used as an adjective.

I caught an early train.   You're very early.

In a formal style, the adjective early can sometimes have the same kind of meaning as soon.

I should be grateful for an early reply.

Best wishes for an early recovery.

A watch or clock is fast or slow, not early or late.

My watch is five minutes fast.

3 quickly

Quickly refers to the speed with which something is done. Compare:

- Come and see us quickly. (= Hurry - make the arrangements fast.)

Come and see us soon. (= Come and see us before long.)

- He did the repair quickly but not very well.

I hope you can do the repair soon - I need the car.

551 sort of, kind of and type of

1 articles

The article a/an is usually dropped after sort of, kind of and type of, but structures with articles are possible in an informal style.

That's a funny sort of (a) car.   What sort of (a) bird is that?

2 singular and plural; these sort of etc

When we are talking about one sort of thing, we can use sort of, kind of or type of followed by a singular noun.

This sort of car is enormously expensive to run.

I'm interested in any new type of development in computer science.

Singular sort of, kind of and type of can also be followed by plural nouns, especially in an informal style.

I'm interested in any new kind of developments ...

Plural demonstratives (these and those) can also be used.

These sort of cars are enormously expensive to run.

Do you smoke those kind of cigarettes?

This structure is often felt to be incorrect, and is usually avoided in a formal style. This can be done by using a singular noun (see above), by using plural sorts/kinds/types, or by using the structure ... of this/that sort/kind/type.

This sort of car is ...

These kinds of car(s) are. . .   Cars of that type are ...

3 softeners

In an informal style, sort of and kind of can be used before almost any word or expression, or at the end of a sentence, to show that we are not speaking very exactly, or to make what we say less definite.

We sort of thought you might forget.

Sometimes I sort of wonder whether I shouldn't sort of get a job.

I've had sort of an idea about what we could do.

She's kind of strange.   I've changed my mind, kind of.

552 sound

Sound is a link verb (see 328). It is followed by adjectives, not adverbs.

You sound unhappy. What's the matter?

Progressive forms are not very common.

Your idea sounds great. (NOT Your idea's sounding great.)

However, progressive forms are possible when there is an idea of change.

The car sounds / is sounding a bit rough these days.

Sound is often followed by like or as if/though.

That sounds like Bill coming up the stairs.

It sounds as if/though he's had a hard day.

553 speak and talk

1 little difference

There is little difference between speak and talk. In certain situations one or the other is preferred, but they are usually both possible.

2 formality

Talk is the more usual word for informal communication.

When she walked into the room everybody stopped talking.

Could I talk to you about the football match for a few minutes?

Speak is often used for communication in more serious or formal situations.

I'll have to speak to that boy - he's getting very lazy.

They had a row last week, and now they're not speaking to one another.

After she had finished reading the letter, nobody spoke.

3 lectures etc

Talk is often used for the act of giving an informal lecture (a talk); speak is preferred for more formal lectures, sermons etc. Compare:

This is Patrick Alien, who's going to talk to us about gardening.

This is Professor Rosalind Bowen, who is going to speak to us on recent developments in low-temperature physics.

The Pope spoke to the crowd for seventy minutes about world peace.

4 languages

Speak is the usual word to refer to knowledge and use of languages, and to the physical ability to speak.

She speaks three languages fluently.

We spoke French so that the children wouldn't understand.

His throat operation has left him unable to speak.

5 other cases

One usually asks to speak to somebody on the phone (AmE also speak with).

Hello. Could I speak to Karen, please?

Talk is used before sense, nonsense and other words with similar meanings.

You're talking complete nonsense, as usual. (NOT You're speaking complete nonsense ... )

554 speech (1): stress and rhythm

Stress and rhythm are important elements in English pronunciation. If learners pronounce all the syllables in a sentence too regularly, with the same force and at the same speed, they can be quite hard for English speakers to understand. And if learners are not sensitive to English stress and rhythm, they may not perceive unstressed syllables (especially 'weak forms' - see 616) at all, and this may make it difficult for them to follow natural English speech.

1 stress

Stress is the word for the 'strength' with which syllables are pronounced. In speech, some parts of English words and sentences sound louder than others. For example, the first syllable of CARpet, the second syllable of inSPECtion or the last syllable of conFUSE are usually stressed, while the other syllables in these words are not. In the sentence Don't look at HIM - HE didn't do it, the words him and he are stressed in order to emphasise them. Stressed syllables are not only louder; they may also have longer vowels, and they may be pronounced on a higher musical pitch.

2 word stress

English words with more than one syllable mostly have a fixed stress pattern. There are not many rules to show which syllable of a word will be stressed: one usually has to learn the stress pattern of a word along with its meaning, spelling and pronunciation. Examples:

Stressed on first syllable:

AFter, CApital, HAPpen, EXercise, EAsy

Stressed on second syllable:

insTEAD, proNOUNCE, aGREEment, parTIcularly

Stressed on third syllable:

enterTAIN, underSTAND, concenTRAtion

The stressed syllable of a word is the one that can carry an intonation movement (see 555 below).

Many short phrases also have a fixed stress pattern.

front DOOR (not FRONT door)

LIVing room (not living ROOM)

Related words can have different stress patterns.

to inCREASE an INcrease

PHotograph phoTOgrapher photoGRAphic

A good dictionary will show how words and common phrases are stressed.

3 variable stress

Some words have variable stress. In these, the stress is at or near the end when the word is spoken alone, but it can move to an earlier position when the word is in a sentence, especially if another stressed word follows. Compare:

- afterNOON (stress at the end)

It's time for my AFternoon SLEEP. (stress at the beginning)

- JapanESE

JApanese cooking

- nineTEEN

The year NINEteen TWENty

Many short phrases - for instance, two-word verbs - have variable stress.

- Their marriage broke UP.

Money problems BROKE up their marriage.

- Do sit DOWN.

She SAT down and cried.

- It's dark BLUE.

a DARK blue SUIT

4 stress and pronunciation

Unstressed syllables nearly always have one of two vowels: /ɪ/ (in unstressed prefixes written with e, like de-, re-, pre-, ex-) or /ə/ (in other cases).

Compare the first syllables in the following pairs of words:

- PREference (/'prəfrəns/) - CONfident (/'kɒnfɪdənt/)

preFER (/prɪ'fɜ:(r)/) conFUSED (/kɒn'fju:zd/)

- EXpert (/'ekspɜ:t/) - PARticle (/'pɑ:tɪkl/)

exPERience (/ɪk'spɪərɪəns/) parTIcular (/pə'tɪkjələ(r)/)

Many short words (mostly pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs) have two quite different pronunciations: a normal 'weak' unstressed form, and a 'strong' form used when the word has special stress. (For details, see 616.)

I was (/wəz/) here first. ~ No you weren't. ~ Yes I was (/wɒz/).

5 emphatic and contrastive stress

Stress is often used to emphasise one part of a sentence, perhaps to make a contrast. Compare these three ways of saying the same words:

Their ELDER daughter went to Cambridge. (Not their younger daughter.)

Their elder DAUGHTER went to Cambridge. (Not their elder son.)

Their elder daughter went to CAMBRIDGE.(Not another university.)

For more about emphasis, see 184.

6 stress in sentences; rhythm

Rhythm is the word for the way stressed and unstressed syllables make patterns in speech. In sentences, we usually give more stress to nouns, ordinary verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and less stress to pronouns, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs.

She was SURE that the BACK of the CAR had been DAMaged.

Stressed syllables are pronounced more slowly and clearly, and (in the opinion of some linguists) follow each other at roughly regular intervals. Unstressed syllables are pronounced more quickly and less clearly, and are fitted in between the stressed syllables. Compare the following two sentences. The second does not take much longer to say than the first: although it has three more unstressed syllables, it has the same number of stressed syllables.

She KNEW the DOCtor.   She KNEW that there was a DOCtor.

555 speech (2): intonation

Intonation is the word for the 'melody' of spoken language: the way the musical pitch of the voice rises and falls. Intonation systems in languages are very complicated and difficult to analyse, and linguists do not all agree about how English intonation works.

1 intonation in conversation

One use of intonation is to show how a piece of information fits in with what comes before and after. For instance, a speaker may raise his or her voice when taking over the conversation from somebody else, or to indicate a change of subject. Arise or fall on a particular word may show that this is the 'centre' of the message - the place where the new information is being given; or it may signal a contrast or a special emphasis. Arising tone at the end of a sentence may suggest that there is more to be said and perhaps invite another speaker to take over.

2 attitude

Intonation (together with speed, voice quality and loudness) can also say things about the speaker's attitude. For instance, when people are excited or angry they often raise and lower their voices more.

3 three patterns

There are three particularly common intonation patterns in English speech.

a) falling intonation

A falling intonation can suggest that we are saying something definite, complete. The voice falls on the last stressed syllable of a group of words.

     ↘                          ↘                                ↘

I'm tired.   Here's your dictionary.   Sally couldn't find him.

A falling intonation is also common in wh-questions.

                            ↘                             ↘

What time's the last bus?   Where's the secretary?

b) rising intonation

Arising intonation is common in yes/no questions. The voice rises at the end of a group of words, beginning on the last stressed syllable.

              ↗                            ↗                     ↗

Are you tired?   Is that the secretary?   Did he post it?

In 'alternative questions' with or, the voice rises on the first part of the question and falls on the second part.

               ↗          ↘

Are you staying or going?

c) fall-rise

A fall-rise intonation suggests that something is incomplete, or uncertain, or that there is more to be said.

    ↘↗

I'm tired. (perhaps suggesting But maybe I'll go out with you anyway.)

                ↘↗

I don't play tennis. (perhaps suggesting But I do play other games.)

           ↘                  ↗

She's quite a good teacher. (perhaps suggesting But I'm not completely happy with her.)

       ↘                   ↗

The first week was good. (perhaps suggesting But not the second.)

         ↘               ↗

Is this all you've written? (perhaps suggesting I was expecting more.)

A fall-rise makes questions sound more interested or friendly. It is common in

polite requests and invitations.

                    ↘↗                     ↘↗                  ↘↗

Where's the secretary?   Please come in.   Is this your car?

                 ↘↗                         ↘↗

What's your name?   Some more potatoes?

4 intonation and misunderstandings

If a statement is made on a rising intonation, it may be misunderstood as a question.

                ↗

That's our train. ~ I don't know. ~ Yes, it is, I'm telling you.

If a declarative question (see 481) is made on a falling intonation, it may be misunderstood as a statement.

               ↘

That's our train? ~ Is it? ~ No, I'm asking you.

A falling intonation can also turn a polite request into an order.

                                 ↘

Can I have some more coffee? ~ At once, Your Majesty.

A fall-rise in the wrong place can be misunderstood as suggesting more than is said.

                     ↘↗

I'd like to play tennis. ~ So what's the problem? ~ There's no problem.

For intonation in question tags, see 487.

556 spelling (1): capital letters

We use capital (big) letters at the beginning of the following kinds of words:

a)   the names of days, months and public holidays (but not usually seasons)

Sunday   March   Easter

Tuesday   September   Christmas

(BUT normally summer, autumn)

b)   the names of people, institutions and places, including stars and planets

John   Mary   the Smiths

the Foreign Office   North Africa   Canada

the United States   The Ritz Hotel   Oxford University

The Super Cinema   the Far East (compare He teaches at a university)

the Pole Star   Mars

(BUT normally the earth, the sun, the moon)

Words derived from people's names have capitals if they refer to the people.

Shakespearean drama (BUT to pasteurise: this refers to a chemical process, not directly to the scientist Pasteur)

c)   people's titles

Mr Smith   Professor Blake

Colonel Webb   the Managing Director   Dr Jones

the Prime Minister is attending the summit

(Compare How is the French prime minister elected?)

d)   nouns and adjectives referring to nationalities and regions, languages, ethnic groups and religions

He's Russian.   I speak German.   Japanese history

Catalan cooking   She's Jewish.   He's a Sikh.

e)   the names of newspapers and magazines

International Herald Tribune   New Scientist

f)   the first word (and often other important words) in the titles of books, films and plays

The Spy who Loved Me Gone with the Wind

A Midsummer Night's Dream

For the use of capitals with East, North etc, see 172.

557 spelling (2): -ly

1 adverb formation

We normally change an adjective into an adverb by adding -ly.

late → lately   real → really (NOT realy)

right → rightly   definite → definitely

hopeful → hopefully   pale → palely

complete → completely (NOT completly)

Exceptions:

true → truly   whole → wholly

due → duly   full → fully

2 -y and -i-

-y usually changes to -i- (see 561).

happy → happily   dry → drily or dryly

easy → easily   gay → gaily

Exceptions:

shy → shyly   sly → slyly   coy → coyly

3 adjectives ending in consonant + le

-le changes to -ly after a consonant.

idle → idly   noble → nobly   able → ably

4 adjectives ending in -ic

If an adjective ends in -ic, the adverb ends in -ically (pronounced /ɪklɪ/),

tragic → tragically   phonetic → phonetically

Exception:

public → publicly

558 spelling (3): -ise and -ize

Many English verbs can be spelt with either -ise or -ize, In American English, -ize is preferred in these cases. Examples:

realise/realize (BrE) | realize (AmE)
mechanise/mechanize (BrE) | mechanize (AmE)
computerise/computerize (BrE)   | computerize (AmE)
baptise/baptize (BrE) | baptize (AmE)

Most words of two syllables, and a few longer words, have -ise in both British and American English. Examples:

surprise (NOT surprize) | despise | supervise
revise | compromise    | televise
advise | exercise | advertise
comprise | improvise

Capsize has -ize in both British and American English.

Note also analyse (AmE analyse/analyze) and paralyse (AmE paralyze).

If in doubt, remember that in British English -ise is almost always acceptable. For American English, consult an American dictionary.

559 spelling (4): hyphens

1 What are hyphens?

Hyphens are the short lines (-) that we put between words in expressions like ticket-office or ex-husband.

2 When are hyphens used?

Hyphens are most common in the following cases:

a) compound nouns

• compound nouns where the second part ends in -er

lorry-driver   bottle-opener

• compound nouns where the first part ends in -ing

waiting-room   writing-paper

• compound nouns made with prepositions and adverb particles

sister-in-law   make-up   in-joke

• many compounds of two nouns, where the first noun has the main stress (but hyphens are becoming less common in these cases)

'water-bottle OR 'water bottle

'apple-tree OR 'apple tree BUT apple 'pie

b) compound adjectives

red-hot   nice-looking   the London-Paris flight

blue-eyed   grey-green   the Scotland-France match

broken-hearted

When we use a longer phrase as an adjective before a noun, we often use hyphens. Compare:

- an out-of-work miner.   - a shoot-to-kill policy

He's out of work.   They were ordered to shoot to kill.

c) compound verbs beginning with a noun

baby-sit   house-hunt

d) prefixes

The prefixes anti-, co-, ex-, mid-, non-, pre-, post-, pro- and self- are often separated from what follows by hyphens.

anti-war   mid-term   post-publication

co-producer   non-involvement   pro-hunting

ex-husband   pre-meeting   self-study

And other prefixes may be separated by hyphens in order to avoid unusual or misleading combinations of letters.

un-American   re-examine   counter-revolution

e) numbers 21-99; fractions

twenty-one   thirty-six   two-thirds

3 word division

We also use hyphens to separate the parts of long words at the end of written or printed lines. (To see where to divide words, look in a good dictionary.)

... is not completely in accordance with the policy of the present government, which was ...

4 Are hyphens disappearing?

The rules about hyphens are complicated, and usage is not very clear. Perhaps because of this, people seem to be using hyphens less, especially in compound nouns. Many common short compounds are now often written 'solid', with no division between the words (e.g. weekend, wideawake, takeover); other less common or longer compounds are now more likely to be written as completely separate words (e.g. train driver, living room). The situation at present is rather confused, and it is not unusual to find the same expression spelt in three different ways (e.g. bookshop, book-shop, book shop). If one is not sure whether to use a hyphen between words or not, the best thing is to look in a dictionary, or to write the words without a hyphen.

560 spelling (5): final e

1 final -e dropped before vowels

When an ending that begins with a vowel (e.g. -ing, -able, -ous) is added to a word that ends in -e, we usually drop the -e.

hope → hoping   note → notable   shade → shady

make → making   fame → famous

Some words that end in -e have two possible forms before -able and -age. The form without -e is more common in most cases. Note:

likeable (usually with e)

mov(e)able (both forms common)

mileage (only with e)

Final -e is not dropped from words ending in -ee, -oe or -ye.

see → seeing   canoe→ canoeist

agree → agreeable   dye → dyeing

2 final -e not dropped before consonants

Before endings that begin with a consonant, final -e is not normally dropped.

excite → excitement   complete → completeness

definite → definitely

Exceptions: words ending in -ue

due → duly   true → truly   argue → argument

In words that end with -ce or -ge, we do not drop -e before a or o.

replace → replaceable   courage → courageous

(BUT charge → charging,   face → facing)

Judg(e)ment and acknowledg(e)ment can be spelt with or without the -e after g.

For words ending in -ie, see 561.5. For adverbs ending in -ly, see 557.

561 spelling (6): y and i

1 changing y to i

When we add an ending to a word that ends in -y, we usually change -y to -i-.

hurry → hurried   fury → furious   merry → merriment

marry → marriage   easy → easier   busy → business

happy → happily

Generally, nouns and verbs that end in -y have plural or third person singular forms in -ies.

story → stories   spy → spies   hurry → hurries

2 exceptions

Two spellings are possible for the nouns flyer/flier.

A machine that dries things is a dryer.

Words formed from the adjective dry: normally drier, driest, dryly/drily, dryness.

Words formed from the adjective sly: slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness.

3 no change before i

We do not change -y to -i- before i (for example when we add -ing, -ism, -ish, -ise).

try → trying   Tory → Toryism   baby → babyish

4 no change after a vowel

We do not change -y to -i- after a vowel letter.

buy → buying   play → played

enjoy → enjoyment   grey → greyish

Exceptions:

say → said   pay → paid   lay → laid

5 changing ie to y

We change -ie to -y- before -ing.

die → dying   lie → lying

(but dye → dyeing)

562 spelling (7): doubling final consonants

1 doubling before vowels

We sometimes double the final consonant of a word before adding -ed, -er, -est, -ing, -able, -y (or any other ending that begins with a vowel).

stop → stopped   sit → sitting   big → bigger

2 Which consonants are doubled?

We double the following letters:

b: rub → rubbing | n: win → winnable
d: sad → sadder | p: stop → stopped
g: big → bigger | r: prefer → preferred
l: travel → travelling    | t: sit → sitting
m: slim → slimming

We double final -s in gassing, gassed (but not usually in other words), final -z in quizzes, fezzes, and final -f in iffy (a colloquial word for 'questionable', 'uncertain').

Final w (in words like show, flow) is part of a vowel sound, and is not doubled.

show → showing;   flow → flowed (NOT showwing, flowwed)

3 only at the end of a word

We only double consonants that come at the end of a word. Compare:

hop → hopping   BUT hope → hoping

fat → fatter   BUT late → later

plan → planned   BUT phone → phoned

4 one consonant after one vowel letter

We only double when the word ends in one consonant after one vowel letter.

Compare:

fat → fatter   BUT fast → faster (NOT fastter)

bet → betting   BUT beat → beating (NOT beatting)

5 only stressed syllables

We only double consonants in stressed syllables. We do not double in longer words that end in unstressed syllables. Compare:

up'set → up'setting   BUT 'visit → 'visiting

be'gin → be'ginning   BUT 'open → 'opening

refer → re'ferring   BUT 'offer → 'offering

Note the spelling of these words:

'gallop → 'galloping → 'galloped (NOT gallopping, gallopped)

de'velop → de'veloping → de'veloped (NOT developping, developped)

6 exception: final l in unstressed syllables

In British English, we double -l at the end of a word after one vowel letter, in most cases, even in unstressed syllables.

'travel → 'travelling

'equal → 'equalled

In American English, words like this are most often spelt with one l: traveling.

7 other exceptions

Consonants are sometimes doubled at the end of final syllables that are pronounced with full vowels (e.g. /æ/), even when these do not carry the main stress.

'kidnap → 'kidnapped

'handicap → 'handicapped

'worship → 'worshippers (AmE also 'worshipers)

'combat → 'combating or 'combatting

Final -s is sometimes doubled in 'focus(s)ing and 'focus(s)ed

8 final c

Final -c changes to ck before -ed, -er, -ing etc.

picnic → picnickers

panic → panicking

mimic → mimicked

9 Why double?

The reason for doubling is to show that a vowel is pronounced short. This is because, in the middle of a word, a stressed vowel letter before one consonant is usually pronounced as a long vowel or as a diphthong (double vowel). Compare:

hoping /'həʊpɪŋ/   hopping /'hɒpɪŋ/

later /'leɪə(r)/   latter /'lætə(r)/

diner /'daɪnə(r)/   dinner /'dɪnə(r)/

563 spelling (8): ch and tch, k and ck

After one vowel, at the end of a word, we usually write -ck and -tch for the sounds /k/ and /tʃ/·

back   neck   sick   lock   stuck

catch   fetch   stitch   botch   hutch

Exceptions:

yak   tic   public (and many other words ending in -ic)

rich   which   such   much   attach   detach

After a consonant or two vowels, we write -k and -ch.

bank   work   talk   march   bench

break   book   week   peach   coach

564 spelling (9): ie and ei

The sound /i:/ (as in believe) is often written ie, but not usually ei. However, we write ei after c for this sound. English-speaking children learn a rhyme: 'i before e, except after c'.

believe   chief   field   grief   piece   shield

ceiling   deceive   receive   receipt

Exceptions: seize, Neil, Keith.

565 spelling (10): spelling and pronunciation

In many English words, the spelling is different from the pronunciation. This is mainly because our pronunciation has changed a good deal over the last few hundred years, while our spelling system has stayed more or less the same. Here is a list of some difficult common words with their pronunciations.

1 usually two syllables, not three

The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.

asp(i)rin   ev(e)ry   om(e)lette

bus(i)ness   ev(e)ning   rest(au)rant

choc(o)late   marritaige   sev(e)ral

diff(e)rent   med(i)cine (AmE three syllables)

2 usually three syllables, not four

The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.

comf(or)table   temp(e)rature

int(e)resting   us(u)ally

secret(a)ry (AmE four syllables)   veg(e)table

3 silent letters

The letters in brackets are not pronounced.

• clim(b)   com(b)   dum(b)   dou(b)t   de(b)t

• mus(c)le

• han(d)kerchief   san(d)wich   We(d)nesday

• champa(g)ne   forei(g)n   si(g)n

• bou(gh)t   cau(gh)t   ou(gh)t   thou(gh)t   borou(gh)   dau(gh)ter   hei(gh)t   hi(gh)   li(gh)t   mi(gh)t   nei(gh)bour   ni(gh)t   ri(gh)t   strai(gh)t   throu(gh)   ti(gh)t   wei(gh)

• w(h)at   w(h)en   w(h)ere   w(h)ether   w(h)ich   w(h)ip   w(h)y and similarly in other words beginning wha, whe or whi. (Some speakers use an unvoiced /w/ in these words.)

• (h)onest   (h)onour   (h)our

• (k)nee   (k)nife   (k)nob   (k)nock   (k)now and similarly in other words beginning kn.

• ca(l)m   cou(l)d   ha(l)f   sa(l)mon   shou(l)d   ta(l)k   wa(l)k   wou(l)d   autum(n)   hym(n)

• (p)neumatic   (p)sychiatrist   (p)sychology   (p)sychotherapy   (p)terodactyl and similarly in other words beginning pn, ps or pt.

• cu(p)board /'kʌbəd/

• i(r)on (British pronunciation /aɪən/)

• i(s)land   i(s)le

• cas(t)le   Chris(t)mas   fas(t)en   lis(t)en   of(t)en   whis(t)le (Often can also be pronounced /'ɒftən/.)

• g(u)arantee   g(u)ard   g(u)errilla   g(u)ess   g(u)est   g(u)ide   g(u)ilt   g(u)itar   g(u)y

• (w)rap   (w)rite   (w)rong

• (w)ho   (w)hom   (w)hore   (w)hose   (w)hole

4 a = /e/

any   many   Thames /temz/

5 ch = /k/

ache   archaeology   architect   chaos   character   chemist

Christmas   mechanical   Michael   stomach

6 ea = /e/

already   bread   breakfast   dead   death   dreadful   dreamt   head   health   heavy   instead   lead (the metal)   leant   leather   meant   measure   pleasant   pleasure   read (past)   ready   steady   sweater   threat   tread   weather

7 ea = /eɪ/

break   great   steak

8 gh = /f/

cough /kɒf/   draught /drɑ:ft/   enough /ɪ'nʌf/   laugh /lɑ:f/   rough /rʌf/   tough /tʌf/

9 o = /ʌ/

above   brother   colour   come   comfortable   company   cover   done   front   glove   government   honey   London   love   lovely   Monday   money   month   mother   none   nothing   one   onion   other   oven   some   son   stomach   ton(ne)   tongue   once   won   wonder   worry

10 o = /u:/

lose   prove   to

11 ou = /ʌ/

country   couple   cousin   double   enough   rough   tough   trouble   young

12 u or ou = /ʊ/

bull   bullet   bush   butcher   could   cushion   full   pull   push   put   should   would

13 words pronounced with /aɪ/

biology   buy   dial   height   idea   iron   microphone   science   society   either (many British speakers)   neither (many British speakers)

14 other strange spellings

area /'eərɪə/ | friend /frend/
Australia /ɒs'treɪlɪə/ | fruit /fru:t/
bicycle /'baɪsɪkl/ | heard /hɜ:d/
biscuit /'bɪskɪt/ | heart /hɑ:t/
blood /blʌd/ | juice /dʒu:s/
brooch /brəʊtʃ/ | minute 'mɪnɪt/
business 'bɪznɪs/ | moustache /mə'stɑ:ʃ/ (AmE /'mʌstæʃ/)
busy /'bɪzi/ | once /wʌns/
clothes /kləʊðz/ | one /wʌn/
does /dʌz/ | theatre /'θɪətə(r)/
doesn't /'dʌz(ə)nt/ | two /tu:/
Edinburgh /'edɪnbrə/      | woman /'wʊmən/
Europe /'jʊərəp/ | women /'wɪmɪn/
foreign /'fɒrən/

15 silent r

In standard southern British English, r is not normally pronounced before a consonant or at the end of a word.

hard /hɑ:d/   first /fɜ:st/   order /'ɔ:də/

car (kɑ:/   four /fɔ:/   more /mɔ:/

But r is pronounced at the end of a word if a vowel follows immediately.

four islands /'fɔ:r 'aɪləndz/   more eggs /'mɔ:r 'eɡz/

Note the pronunciation of iron, and of words ending in -ered and -re.

iron /aɪən/ (AmE /'aɪrən/    wondered /,wʌndəd/

centre /'səntə(r)/   bothered /'bɒðəd/

theatre /'θɪətə(r)/

We often add /r/ after words ending in the sound /ə/ even when this is not written with r, if another vowel follows immediately.

India and Africa /'ɪndɪər ənd 'æfrɪkə/

In most varieties of American English, and in many regional British accents, r is pronounced whenever it is written.

566 still, yet and already: time

1 meanings

Still, yet and already can all be used to talk about things which are going on, or expected, around the present. Briefly:

- still is used to say that something is continuing and has not stopped

- yet is used to talk about something that is expected

- already is used to say that something has happened early, or earlier than it might have happened.

2 still

Still is used to say that something has, perhaps surprisingly, not finished.

She's still asleep.   Is it still raining?

I've been thinking for hours, but I still can't decide.

You're not still seeing that Jackson boy, are you?

Still usually goes with the verb, in 'mid-position' (see 24).

3 yet

Not yet is used to say that something which is expected has not happened (but we think that it will).

Is Sally here? ~ Not yet.

The postman hasn't come yet.

In questions, we use yet to ask whether something expected has happened.

Is supper ready yet?   Has the postman come yet?

Yet usually goes at the end of a clause, but it can go immediately after not in a formal style.

Don't eat the pears - they aren't ripe yet.

The pears are not yet ripe. (more formal)

4 already

Already is used to say that something has happened earlier than expected, or earlier than it might have happened.

When's Sally going to come? ~ She's already here.

You must go to Scotland. ~ I've already been.

Have you already finished? That was quick!

Already usually goes with the verb, in 'mid-position' (see 24.) It can also go at the end of a clause, for emphasis.

Are you here already? You must have run all the way.

We do not usually put already before time expressions.

When I was fourteen I already knew that I wanted to be a doctor. (NOT Already when I was fourteen ... )

In 1970 Britain's car industry was already in serious trouble. (NOT Already in 1970 ...)

5 still not or not yet?

Still not looks back towards the past; not yet looks towards the future. Compare:

- She still hasn't got a job. (Looking back: she hasn't had a job since Christmas, and this situation is continuing.)

She hasn't got a job yet. (Looking forward: she hasn't got a job now, but we're hoping that she will get one.)

- I still can't speak French, after all these years of study.

I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to soon.

6 yet or already in questions

Questions with already often suggest that something has happened. Compare:

~ Have you met Professor Hawkins yet? (= I don't know whether you've met him.)

Have you already met Professor Hawkins? (= I think you've probably met him.)

- Is my coat dry yet?

Is my coat dry already? That was quick!

7 tenses

Various tenses are possible with all three words. In British English, perfect tenses are common with already and yet; Americans often prefer past tenses. Compare:

- Have you called the garage yet? (BrE)   - She's already left. (BrE)

Did you call the garage yet? (AmE)   She already left. (AmE)

8 related to a past moment

All three words can be related to a past moment instead of to the present.

I went to see if she had woken up yet, but she was still asleep. This was embarrassing, because her friends had already arrived.

9 yet meaning 'still'

Yet is normally used in questions and negative sentences. But it is sometimes used in affirmative sentences in a formal style to mean 'still'.

We have yet to hear from the bank. (= We are still waiting to hear ... )

10 all ready

All ready is not the same as already: it simply means the same as all + ready. Compare:

When's Jane coming? ~ She's already arrived.

Are you all ready? ~ No, Pete isn't.

567 subjunctive

1 What is the subjunctive?

Some languages have special verb forms called 'subjunctive', which are used especially to talk about 'unreal' situations: things which are possible, desirable or imaginary. Older English had subjunctives, but in modern English they have mostly been replaced by uses of should, would and other modal verbs, by special uses of past tenses (see 426), and by ordinary verb forms. English only has a few subjunctive forms left: third-person singular present verbs without -(e)s, (e.g. she see, he have) and special forms of be (e.g. I be, he were). Except for I/he/she/it were after if, they are not very common.

2 that she see

Ordinary verbs only have one subjunctive form: a third person singular present with no -(e)s (e.g. she see). It is sometimes used in that-clauses in a formal style, especially in American English, after words which express the idea that something is important or desirable (e.g. suggest, recommend, ask, insist, vital, essential, important, advice). The same forms are used in both present and past sentences.

It is essential that every child have the same educational opportunities.

It was important that lames contact Arthur as soon as possible.

Our advice is that the company invest in new equipment.

The judge recommended that Simmons remain in prison for life.

Do is not used in negative subjunctives. Note the word order.

We felt it desirable that he not leave school before eighteen.

With verbs that are not third-person singular, the forms are the same as ordinary present-tense verbs (but they may refer to the past).

I recommended that you move to another office.

3 be

Be has special subjunctive forms: I be, you be etc.

It is important that Helen be present when we sign the papers.

The Director asked that he be allowed to advertise for more staff.

I were and he/she/it were, used for example after if (see 258.4) and wish (see 630) in a formal style, are also subjunctives.

If I were you I should stop smoking.

I wish it were Saturday.

4 fixed phrases

Subjunctives are also used in certain fixed phrases. Examples:

God save the Queen!   Long live the King!

God bless you.   Heaven forbid.

He's a sort of adopted uncle, as it were. (= ... in a way.)

Be that as it may ... (= Whether that is true or not ... )

If we have to pay £2,000, then so be it. (= We can't do anything to change it.)

5 other structures

Most subjunctive structures are formal and unusual in British English. In that-clauses, British people usually prefer should + infinitive (see 521), or ordinary present and past tenses.

It is essential that every child should have the same educational opportunities. (OR ... that every child has ... )

It was important that James should contact Arthur as soon as possible. (OR ... that James contacted ... )

568 such

1 word order

Such is used with nouns and noun phrases. It comes before a/an.

such people   such interesting ideas

such a decision (NOT a such decision)

2 'of this/that kind'

Such can mean 'like this/that', 'of this/that kind'. This is most common in a formal style, with abstract nouns.

The committee wishes to raise fees. I would oppose such a decision.

There are various forms of secret writing. Such systems are called 'codes'.

In an informal style, and with concrete nouns, we prefer like this/that or this/that kind of.

... systems like this are called ...

He's got an old Rolls-Royce. I'd like a car like that. (NOT I'd like such a car.)

3 high degree

Another use of such is to talk about a high degree of some quality. In this sense, such is common before adjective + noun.

I'm sorry you had such a bad journey. (= You had a very bad journey, and I'm sorry.)

It was a pleasure to meet such interesting people.

Such is also possible with this meaning before a noun alone, when the noun has an emphatic descriptive meaning.

I'm glad your concert was such a success.

Why did she make such a fuss about the dates?

4 such and very, great etc

Very, great and similar words are also used to talk about a high degree of some quality. The difference is that they give new information; such (= like this/that) normally refers to information that is already known. Compare:

- I've had a very bad day. (giving information)

Why did you have such a bad day? (The information is already known.)

- The weather was very cold.

I wasn't expecting such cold weather.

- There was great confusion

Why was there such confusion?

However, in a very informal style such can also be used to mean 'very' or 'great', especially in exclamations.

She has such a marvellous voice!   He's such an idiot!

5 such ... that; such ... as to

Structures with very cannot be followed directly by that-clauses. Instead, we can use such ... that.

It was such a cold afternoon that we stopped playing. (NOT It was a very cold afternoon that ... )

There is also a structure with such followed by ... + as to + infinitive. This is formal and not very common.

It was such a loud noise as to wake everybody in the house. (Less formal: ... such a loud noise that it woke ... )

6 such as

Such as is used to introduce examples.

My doctor told me to avoid fatty foods such as bacon or hamburgers.

7 such-and-such

Note this informal expression.

She's always telling you that she's met such-and-such a famous person. (= ... one or other famous person.)

For the difference between such and so, see 569.

569 such and so

1 such before (adjective +) noun

We use such before a noun (with or without an adjective).

They're such fools. (NOT They're so fools.)

It was such good milk that we couldn't stop drinking it. (NOT It was so good milk that ... )

Such comes before a/an.

She's such a baby.

I've never met such a nice person. (NOT ... a such/so nice person.)

2 so before adjective, adverb etc

We use so before an adjective alone (without a noun) or an adverb.

She's so babyish. (NOT She's such babyish.)

The milk was so good that we couldn't stop drinking it.

Why do you talk so slowly?

We can also use so before much, many, few and little.

We've got so much to do, and so little time.

We use so much, not so, before comparatives.

I'm glad you're feeling so much better. (NOT ... so better.)

For so beautiful a day etc, see 14.

For more about the meaning and use of such, see 568. For more about so, see 538.

570 suggest

1 infinitive not used

Suggest is not followed by object + infinitive. That-clauses and -ing structures are common.

Her uncle suggested that she (should) get a job in a bank.

Her uncle suggested getting a job in a bank. (NOT Her uncle suggested her to get a job in a bank.)

2 indirect object not used

Suggest is not normally followed by an indirect object without a preposition.

Can you suggest a restaurant to us? (NOT Can you suggest us a restaurant?)

3 verb forms in that-clauses

In that-clauses after suggest, various verb forms are possible when we suggest

what people should do.

a) Ordinary present and past tenses can be used.

Her uncle suggests that she gets a job in a bank.

He suggested that she got a job in a bank.

b) Should + infinitive without to is common.

He suggests that she should get a job in a bank.

He suggested that she should get a job in a bank.

c) Subjunctives (see 567) are also used, especially in American English.

He suggests that she get a job in a bank.

He suggested that she get a job in a bank.

4 direct suggestions

In direct suggestions ('I suggest ...'), should is not generally used.

I suggest (that) you get ... (NOT I suggest that you should get.)

571 suppose, supposing and what if

Suppose, supposing and what if can all be used with present tenses to make suggestions about things that might happen.

I haven't got a table cloth. ~ Suppose we use a sheet.

Let's go swimming. ~ Supposing there are sharks.

What if we invite your mother next weekend and go away the week after?

A past tense makes the suggestion sound less definite.

Daddy, can I watch TV? ~ Suppose you did your homework first.

I'm going to climb up there. ~ No! supposing you slipped!

What if I came tomorrow instead of this afternoon?

In sentences about the past, past perfect tenses are used to talk about situations that did not occur.

That was very clever, but supposing you had slipped?

For more about past tenses with present or future meanings, see 426.

572 supposed to

Be supposed + infinitive is used to say what people have to do (or not do) according to the rules or the law, or about what is (not) expected to happen.

Catholics are supposed to go to church on Sundays.

We're supposed to pay the Council Tax at the beginning of the month.

You're not supposed to park on double yellow lines.

There is often a suggestion that things do not happen as planned or expected.

This country is supposed to be a democracy.

Lucy was supposed to come to lunch. What's happened?

Cats are supposed to be afraid of dogs, but ours isn't.

Questions with supposed to can suggest that there are problems.

The train's already left. What are we supposed to do now?

How am I supposed to finish all this work by ten o'clock?

That's a lovely picture, but what's it supposed to be?

Another use of supposed to is to say what is generally believed.

He's supposed to be quite rich, you know.

This stuff is supposed to kill flies. Let's try it.

Note the pronunciation: /sə'pəʊst tə/, not /sə'pəʊzd tə/.

573 surely

1 not the same as certainly

Surely does not usually mean the same as certainly. We use certainly when we simply tell people that something is true. We use surely mostly to ask for people's agreement: to persuade them that something must be true, or that there are good reasons for believing it. Compare:

- House prices are certainly rising fast at the moment. ('I know this is so.')

House prices will surely stop rising soon. ('I believe this must be so.')

- I certainly posted the letter on Monday. ('I know.')

She's surely got the letter by now. ('It seems very probable.')

2 belief in spite of ...

Surely can be used when we say that we think something is true in spite of reasons to believe the opposite, or in spite of suggestions to the contrary. These sentences are often like questions.

I'm going to marry Sonia. ~ Surely she's married already?

Surely that's Henry over there? I thought he was in Scotland.

Is it tonight we're going out? ~ No, tomorrow, surely?

With not, surely can express difficulty in believing something.

Tim failed his exam. ~ Oh, surely not?

Surely you're not going out in that hat?

You don't think I'm going to pay for you, surely?

574 sympathetic

Sympathetic usually means 'sharing somebody's feelings' or 'sorry for somebody who is in trouble'.

I'm sympathetic towards the strikers.

She's always very sympathetic when people feel ill.

Sympathetic is a 'false friend' for speakers of certain languages. It does not usually mean the same as, for example, sympathique, sympathisch, sympatisk or simpatico.

The people in my class are all very nice / pleasant / easy to get on with. (NOT ... are all very sympathetic.)

575 taboo words and swearwords

1 introduction

Many languages have words which are considered dangerous, holy, magic or shocking, and which are only used in certain situations or by certain people. For instance, in some African tribes the names of dead chiefs must not be said; in many cultures, words associated with religious beliefs are used only on religious occasions, or only by priests. Words of this kind can be called 'taboo words'.

English has three main groups of taboo words and expressions:

a) A number of words connected with the Christian religion (e.g. the names Christ, God) are considered holy by some people. These people prefer to use such words only in formal and respectful contexts, and they may be upset or shocked by their 'careless' use.

b) Certain words relating to sexual activity and the associated parts of the body (e.g. fuck, balls) are regarded as shocking by many people. Thirty or forty years ago some of these words could not be printed or broadcast, and they are still comparatively unusual in public speech and writing. In polite or formal language these words are generally avoided, or replaced by other words and expressions (e.g. make love or have sexual intercourse, testicles).

c) Some words referring to the elimination of bodily wastes (what one does in the lavatory), and the associated parts of the body, are also regarded as 'dirty' or shocking (e.g. piss, shit). They are often replaced by more 'polite' words and expressions with the same meaning (e.g. urinate, defecate) or by substitutes (e.g. go to the lavatory, wash one's hands).

Because taboo words are shocking, they are common in situations where people want to express powerful emotions by using 'strong' language. This is called 'swearing'. When people swear, taboo words usually change their meanings completely. For example, fuck off and piss off have nothing to do with sex or urinating - they are simply violently rude ways of saying 'go away'. The strength of the original taboo word is borrowed for a different purpose.

Linguistic taboos in English-speaking countries are less strong than they used to be. Most taboo words and swearwords shock less than they did, say, twenty years ago. And increasingly, people are using informal taboo words which are felt to be amusingly 'naughty' rather than shocking, such as bonk or shag instead of fuck, or willy instead of prick (= penis).

None the less, students should be very careful about using taboo words and swearwords. There are two reasons for this. First of all, it is not easy to know the exact strength of these expressions in a foreign language, or to know what kind of people are shocked by them, and in what circumstances. One may easily say something that is meant as a joke, but which seriously upsets the people one is talking to. And secondly, using this sort of language generally indicates membership of a group: one most often swears in the company of people one knows well, who belong to one's own social circle, age group etc. (Children usually avoid swearing in front of adults so as not to annoy or shock them, and adults avoid swearing in front of children for similar reasons.) So a foreigner who uses swearwords may give the impression of claiming membership of a group that he or she does not belong to.

2 taboo words

The following are some of the most common English taboo words, with explanations of their literal meanings where necessary. Their approximate 'strength' is shown by stars: one-star words like hell, damn or blast (which are scarcely taboo in modern English) will not upset many people, while a three or four-star word may be very shocking if it is used in the wrong situation. Note, however, that individual reactions to particular words (and to swearing in general) vary enormously, and that attitudes are changing rapidly (and generally becoming more tolerant of this kind of language). So people of different ages and backgrounds are likely to disagree a good deal about the strength of the words listed.

The words associated with religion are not considered shocking when used with their literal meaning, and the stars show their strength when used as swearwords. The strength of the other words is mostly the same whether they are used literally or for swearing.

Religion

taboo word | meaning
damn * | condemn to hell (rare in literal sense; mainly used as swearword)
blast * (BrE) | strike with divine punishment (rare in literal sense; mainly used as swearword)
hell * | (Damn, blast and hell have lost most of their strength, and are scarcely regarded as swearwords by most people in modern English.)
God * |
Jesus ** |
Christ ** |

Parts of the body

taboo word
meaning

arse ***
bottom, buttocks, anus

(AmE ass **)
arsehole ***
(AmE asshole **)
anus

balls ***
testicles

bollocks *** (BrE)
testicles

cock ***
penis

dick***
penis

prick ***
penis

tits ***
breasts

cunt ****
woman's sex organ

twat ***
woman's sex organ

Sexual activity

taboo word
meaning

fuck ***
have sex (with)

wank ***
(AmE jerk off ***)
masturbate (have sex with oneself)

bugger *** (BrE)
have anal intercourse with a person or animal; person who does so (rare in literal sense)

come **
reach a sexual climax (orgasm)

sod ** (BrE)
homosexual (abbreviation of sodomite, rare in literal sense)

bitch ***
female dog; earlier used for 'immoral' woman prostitute

whore **
prostitute

bastard **
child of unmarried parents

Lavatory

taboo word | meaning
piss *** | urine; urinate
shit *** | excrement; defecate
crap ** | excrement; defecate
fart ** | let digestive gas out from the anus

3 swearwords

All of the words listed above, and a few others, are used in swearing. The meaning of a swearword is always different from its literal (taboo) meaning (see introduction above). Compare:

What are you doing fucking in my bed? (= Why are you making love in my bed? - literal meaning of fucking)

What are you fucking doing in my bed? (= Why the hell are you in my bed? - fucking used as a swearword)

The meaning of a swearword can also change with its grammatical form. For instance, piss off is an aggressive way of saying go away; pissed is British slang for drunk; pissed off is British slang for fed up. Many swearwords are grammatically very flexible. Fucking, for example, can act both as an adjective (e.g. fucking idiot) and as an intensifying adverb (e.g. fucking good, fucking soon, it's fucking raining, fucking well shut up). It is even sometimes put into the middle of another word (abso-fucking-lutely). Swearwords are the only words in the language that have this grammatical range.

The following list shows some of the most common expressions used in swearing; they are grouped according to meaning.

a) exclamation of annoyance

Damn (it)! | (My) God! | Bugger (it)! (BrE)
Blast (it)! (BrE) | Jesus! | Sod (it)! (BrE)
God damn it! | Christ! | Shit!
God damn! (especially AmE)    | Jesus Christ!    | Fuck (it)!
Hell!

Examples of use:

Damn it! Can't you hurry up?

Christ! It's raining again!

Oh, fuck! I've lost the address!

b) exclamation of surprise

(My) God! | Well, I'll be damned!
Jesus! | Son of a bitch! (especially AmE)
Christ! | Damn me!
Jesus Christ! | Bugger/Fuck me! (BrE)
God damn! (especially AmE)   | Well, I'm damned/ buggered! (BrE)

Examples of use:

My God! Look at that!

Well, I'm damned! What are you doing here?

Bugger me! There's Mrs Smith. I thought she was on holiday.

c) surprised question

Who/What/Why etc the hell ... ? (AmE also ... in hell ... ?)

Who/What/Why etc the fuck ... ?

Examples of use:

What the hell do you think you're doing?

Where the fuck are the car keys?

d) insult (noun)

Note that these nouns generally have no real meaning. They simply express a strong emotion such as hatred, anger, envy or contempt.

bastard | shit | bitch (applied to women) | (stupid) fuck
fart | sod (BrE) | son of a bitch (AmE) | (esp AmE)
prick | bugger (BrE) | arsehole (AmE asshole) | dickhead (= idiot)
fucker | wanker (BrE) | motherfucker (AmE)
cunt | twat (= idiot)   | cocksucker (AmE)

Examples of use:

You bastard!   Lucky sod!

Stupid old fart!   She's such a bitch!

He's a real prick!   That guy's a real asshole!

Stupid fucker!   Stupid twat!

e) insult (imperative verb + object)

Damn ... ! | Blast ... ! (BrE)   | Sod ... ! (BrE)
Bugger ... ! (BrE)  | Fuck ... ! | Screw ... !

Examples of use:

Damn that child!   Fuck you!   Screw the government!

f) insulting request to go away

Fuck off!    | Bugger off! (BrE)
Piss off! | Sod off! (BrE)

Examples of use:

Can I have a word with you? ~ Fuck off!

If Andy comes asking for money, tell him to piss off.

g) expression of unconcern (= 'I don't care')

I don't/couldn't give a damn/shit/fuck; ... a bugger (BrE).

Examples of use:

They can come and arrest me if they want to. I don't give a fuck.

Mary's very angry with you. ~ I don't give a bugger.

h) violent refusal/rejection/defiance

(I'll be) damned/fucked if I will!  | Balls to ... ! (BrE)
... buggered if I will! (BrE) | Bollocks! (BrE)
Stuff it (up your arse/ass) | Kiss my arse/ass!
Get stuffed! (BrE) | Suck my cock!
Balls! | Why don't you take a flying fuck?

Examples of use:

Mr Parsons wants you to clean out the lavatories. ~ Fucked if I will!

Management are offering another £8 a week. ~ They can stuff it.

Give me a kiss. ~ Get stuffed!

You're afraid to fight. ~ Balls!

Balls to the lot of you! I'm going home.

i) intensifying adjective/adverb (used to emphasise an emotion)

damn(ed) | sodding (BrE)
bloody (BrE) | fucking
goddam (AmE)     

Bloody has no literal taboo equivalent in modern English.

Examples of use:

That car's going damn(ed) fast.   She's a fucking marvellous singer.

Where's the bloody switch?   Put the fucking cat out!

It's bloody raining again.

When these words are used before verbs, the word well is often added in British English.

I damn well hope you never come back.

I'm not fucking well paying this time.

It's bloody well raining again.

j) miscellaneous

Fuck (up), screw (up) and bugger (up) (BrE) can mean 'ruin', 'spoil' or 'destroy'.

Somebody's fucked up the TV.

You've buggered my watch.

Fucked and buggered can mean 'exhausted' (BrE).

Want another game of tennis? ~ No, I'm fucked.

Screw (especially AmE) can mean 'cheat'.

Don't buy a car from that garage - they'll screw you.

Cock up (BrE), balls up (BrE), fuck up and screw up can be used as verbs or nouns to refer to mistakes of organisation. (When used as nouns, they are often written with hyphens.)

That bloody secretary's cocked up my travel arrangements.

Sorry you didn't get your invitation - Mary made a balls-up.

The conference was a complete fuck-up.

Well, we really screwed up this time, didn't we?

Balls (BrE), bullshit (AmE), cock and crap are used to mean 'nonsense'.

What's his new book like? ~ A load of balls.

Don't talk crap!

In American English, shit can mean 'lies' or 'nothing'.

Janie's getting married. ~ No shit?

He don't know his ass from a hole in the ground. He don't know shit.

Bugger/fuck/damn/sod all are used in British English to mean 'nothing'.

There's fuck all in the fridge. We'll have to eat out.

In British English, pissed means 'drunk' and pissed off means 'fed up'.

Steve was pissed out of his mind again last night.

I'm getting pissed off with London.

In American English, pissed is 'annoyed', 'angry'.

I'm pissed at him because of what he's been saying about me.

A sod of a ... means 'a very bad .. .'

It was a sod of an exam.   It's a sod of a place to get to.

For information about slang, see 533.

576 take: time

We can use take to say how much time we need to do something. Five structures are common

1 The person is the subject:

person + take + time + infinitive

I took three hours to get home last night.

She takes all day to get out of the bathroom.

They took two hours to unload the ferry.

2 The activity is the subject:

activity + take (+ person) + time

The journey took me three hours.

Gardening takes a lot of time.

Unloading the ferry took them two hours.

3 The object of the activity is the subject:

object of activity + take (+ person) + infinitive

The ferry took them two hours to unload.

This house will take all week to clean.

4 Preparatory it is the subject:

It + take (+ person) + time + infinitive

It took me three hours to get home last night.

It takes ages to do the shopping.

5 Before/until is used:

It + take (+ person) + time + before/until.

It took us six weeks before/until we got the house clean.

It took a long time before/until she felt comfortable in her new school.

577 taste

1 link verb

Taste can be used as a 'link verb' (see 328), followed by an adjective or noun, to say how something tastes. Progressive forms are not used.

This tastes nice. What's in it? (NOT ... tastes nicely.)

The wine tastes funny. (NOT ... is tasting funny ... )

Before a noun, taste of and taste like are used.

The fish soup tasted mostly of garlic.

Her lips tasted like wild strawberries.

2 transitive verb: 'perceive'

Taste can be used with an object, to say what we perceive with our sense of taste. Progressive forms are not used. We often use can taste (see 125).

I can taste onion and mint in the sauce. (NOT I am tasting ... )

3 transitive verb: 'investigate'

Another transitive use is to say that we are using our sense of taste to find out something. Progressive forms can be used.

Stop eating the cake. ~ I'm just tasting it to see if it's OK

578 telephoning

1 answering a phone

People answering a private phone either say 'Hello' or give their name. People answering a business phone most often give their name.

'Hello'.    'Albert Packard.'

2 asking for a person

Could I speak to Jane Horrabin? (AmE also Could I speak with ... ?)

3 saying who you are

Hello, this is Corinne. (NOT USUALLY ... I'm Corinne.)

Could I speak to Jane Horrabin? ~ Speaking. OR This is Jane Horrabin (speaking).

4 asking who somebody is

Who is that? (AmE Who is this / Who's there?)

Who am I speaking to?   Who is that speaking?

5 asking for a number

Can/Could I have extension two oh four six?

What's the (dialling) code for Bristol? (AmE ... area code ... ?)

How do I get an outside line?

6 if you want the other person to pay for the call

I'd like to make a reversed (OR transferred) charge call to Bristol 437878.

(AmE I'd like to make a collect call ... )

7 if somebody is not there

I'm afraid she's not in at the moment.

Can I take a message?

Can I leave a message?

Please leave your message after the tone.

I'll ring/call again later. (AmE I'll call ... )

Could you ask her to ring/call me back?

Could you ask her to ring/call me at/on Ardington 637022?

Could you just tell her Jake called?

8 asking people to wait

Just a moment.   Hold the line, please.

Hold on a moment, please.   Hang on. (informal)

9 things a switchboard operator may say

One moment, please.   (The number's) ringing for you.

(I'm) trying to connect you.   (I'm) putting you through now.

I'm afraid the number/line is engaged (BrE) / busy (AmE).   Will you hold?

I'm afraid there's no reply from this number / from her extension.

10 wrong number

I think you've got the wrong number.

I'm sorry. I've got the wrong number.

11 problems

Could you speak louder? It's a bad line (BrE)/bad connection.

You're breaking up.

I'll call again. I was/got cut off.

I rang/called you earlier but I couldn't get through.

579 telling the time

1 saying what time it is

There are two common ways of saying what time it is.

8.05   eight (oh) five OR five past eight

8.10   eight ten OR ten past eight

8.15   eight fifteen OR a quarter past eight

8.25   eight twenty-five OR twenty-five past eight

8.30   eight thirty OR half past eight

8.35   eight thirty-five OR twenty-five to nine

8.45   eight forty-five OR a quarter to nine

8.50   eight fifty OR ten to nine

9.00   nine o'clock

Americans prefer to write a colon between the hours and the minutes: 8:50. People generally prefer to say minutes past/to for times between the five-minute divisions.

seven minutes past eight (More natural than seven past eight)

three minutes to nine (More natural than three to nine)

The expression o'clock is only used at the hour. Compare:

Wake me at seven (o'clock).

Wake me at ten past seven. (NOT ... ten past seven o'clock.)

Past is often dropped from half past in informal speech.

OK, see you at half two. (= ... half past two.)

In American English after is often used instead of past (e.g. ten after six); but Americans do not say half after. And in American English of, before and till are possible instead of to (e.g. twenty-five of three).

2 asking what time it is

Common ways of asking about time are:

What time is it?   Have you got the time? (informal)

What's the time?   Could you tell me the time? (more formal)

What time do you make it? (OR What do you make the time?)

(BrE, meaning 'What time is it by your watch?')

3 the twenty-four hour clock

The twenty-four hour clock is used mainly in timetables, programmes and official announcements. In ordinary speech, people usually use the twelve-hour clock. Compare:

- Last check-in time is 20.15.

We have to check in by a quarter past eight in the evening.

- The next train from platform 5 is the 17.53 departure for Carlisle.

What time does the next train leave?~ Five fifty-three.

- The meeting will begin at fourteen hundred.

We're meeting at two o'clock.

If necessary, times can be distinguished by using in the morning/afternoon/evening. In a more formal style, we can use am (= Latin ante meridiem - 'before midday') and pm (= post meridiem - 'after midday').

09.00 = nine o'clock in the morning (OR nine am)

21.00 = nine o'clock in the evening (OR nine pm)

580 tense simplification in subordinate clauses

1 reasons for tense simplification

If the main verb of a sentence makes it clear what kind of time the speaker is talking about, it is not always necessary for the same time to be indicated again in subordinate clauses. Compare:

- This discovery means that we will spend less on food.

This discovery will mean that we spend less on food.

- It is unlikely that he will win.

I will pray that he wins.

Verbs in subordinate clauses are often simpler in form than verbs in main clauses - for example present instead of future, simple past instead of would + infinitive, simple past instead of past perfect.

You'll find Coca-Cola wherever you go. (NOT ... wherever you will go.)

He would never do anything that went against his conscience. (More natural than ... that would go against his conscience.)

I hadn't understood what she said. (More natural than ... what she had said.)

2 present instead of future: I'll write when I have time

Present tenses are often used instead of will + infinitive to refer to the future in subordinate clauses. This happens not only after conjunctions of time like when, until, after, before, as soon as, but in most other subordinate clauses - for instance after if, whether and on condition that, after question words and relatives, and in indirect speech.

I'll write to her when I have time. (NOT ... when I will have time.)

I'll think of you when I'm lying on the beach next week. (NOT ... when I will be lying ... )

Will you stay here until the plane takes off?

It will be interesting to see whether he recognises you.

I'll have a good time whether I win or lose.

I'll lend it to you on condition that you bring it back tomorrow.

I'll go where you go.

He says he'll give five pounds to anybody who finds his pen.

One day the government will really ask people what they want.

If she asks what I'm doing in her flat, I'll say I'm checking the gas.

I think you'll find the wind slows you down a bit.

This can happen even if the main verb is not future in form, provided it refers to the future.

Phone me when you arrive.

Make sure you come back soon.

You can tell who you like next week, but not until then.

In comparisons with as and than, present and future verbs are both possible.

She'll be on the same train as we are/will tomorrow.

We'll get there sooner than you do/will.

3 present perfect: ... when I've finished

The present perfect is used instead of the future perfect, to express the idea of completion.

I'll phone you when I've finished. (NOT ... when I will have finished.)

At the end of the year there will be an exam on everything you've studied. (NOT ... everything you will have studied.)

4 future in subordinate clauses: ... where she will be

A future verb is necessary for future reference in a subordinate clause if the main verb does not refer to the future (or to the same time in the future).

I don't know where she will be tomorrow.

I'm sure I won't understand a word of the lecture.

I'll hide it somewhere where he'll never find it. (two different future times)

If she rings, I'll tell her that I'll ring back later. (two different future times)

For future verbs in if-clauses (e.g. I'll give you £100 if it will help you to go on holiday), see 260.

5 in case, I hope, I bet, it doesn't matter etc

A present tense is normally used with a future meaning after in case even if the main verb is present or past. For details, see 271.

I've got my tennis things in case we have time for a game tomorrow.

In an informal style, present verbs are often used with future meanings after I hope (see 250) and I bet (see 103).

I hope you sleep well.

I bet he gets married before the end of the year.

Present tenses are also used with future reference after it doesn't matter, I don't care, I don't mind, it's not important and similar expressions.

It doesn't matter where we go on holiday

I don't care what we have for dinner if I don't have to cook it.

6 past instead of would ...

Would, like will, is avoided in subordinate clauses; instead, we generally use past verbs. This happens in if-clauses (see 258), and also after most other conjunctions.

If I had lots of money, I would give some to anybody who asked for it. (NOT If I would have ... who would ask for it.)

Would you follow me wherever I went? (NOT ... wherever I would go?)

In a perfect world, you would be able to say exactly what you thought. (NOT ... what you would think.)

I would always try to help anybody who was in trouble, whether I knew them or not.

For past tenses after It's time, see 306; for past tenses after I'd rather, see 491; for past tenses after I wish, see 630.

7 simplification of perfect and progressive verbs

Simple past verb forms are used quite often in subordinate clauses instead of present perfect and past perfect tenses, if the meaning is clear.

It's been a good time while it('s) lasted.

I've usually liked the people I('ve) worked with.

For thirty years, he had done no more than he (had) needed to.

He probably crashed because he had gone to sleep while he was driving. (More natural than ... while he had been driving.)

Progressives are often replaced by simple forms in subordinate clauses.

He's working. But at the same time as he works, he's exercising. (OR ... at the same time as he's working ... )

8 exceptions

These rules do not usually apply to clauses beginning because, although, since or as (meaning 'because'), or to non-identifying relative clauses (see 495).

I won't mind the heat on holiday because I won't move about much.

I'll come to the opera with you, although I probably won't enjoy it.

You'll work with Mr Harris, who will explain everything to you.

For tenses in indirect speech, see 275.

581 than and as as subjects, objects and complements

1 subjects: more than is necessary; as happened

Than and as can replace subjects in clauses (rather like relative pronouns).

He worries more than is necessary. (NOT ... more than it/what is necessary.)

There were a lot of people at the exhibition - more than came last year. (NOT ... more than they came last year.)

The train might be late, as happened yesterday. (NOT ... as it happened yesterday.)

We've got food for as many people as want it. (NOT ... as they want it.)

Common expressions with as in place of a subject: as follows; as was expected; as was agreed; as is well known.

I have prepared a new plan, as follows. (NOT ... as it follows.)

They lost money, as was expected. (NOT ... as it was expected.)

I am sending you the bill, as was agreed. (NOT ... as it was agreed.)

As is well known, smoking is dangerous. (NOT As it is well known ... )

2 objects and complements: as I did last year

Than and as can also act as objects and complements.

They sent more vegetables than I had ordered. (NOT ... than I had ordered them.)

Don't lose your passport, as I did last year. (NOT ... as I did it last year.)

She was more frightened than I was. (NOT ... than I was it.)

You're as tired as I am. (NOT ... as I am it.)

Some English dialects use what after as and than in these cases.

They sent more paper than what I had ordered. (non-standard)

You're as tired as what I am. (non-standard)

582 thankful and grateful

Grateful is the normal word for people's reactions to kindness, favours etc.

I'm very grateful for all your help. (NOT I'm very thankful ... )

She wasn't a bit grateful to me for repairing her car.

Thankful is used especially for feelings of relief at having avoided a danger, or at having come through an unpleasant experience.

I'm thankful that we got home before the storm started.

We feel very thankful that she didn't marry him after all.

Well, I'm thankful that's over.

583 that-clauses

1 that as a connector

That is a conjunction with little real meaning. It is simply a connector - it shows that a clause forms part of a larger sentence. Compare:

I understood. He was innocent. (two separate sentences)

I understood that he was innocent. (The clause he was innocent has become the object of the verb in the larger sentence.)

2 that-clauses in sentences

A that-clause can be the subject of a sentence.

That she should forget me so quickly was rather a shock.

It can be a complement after be.

The main thing is that you're happy.

Many verbs can have that-clauses as objects.

We knew that the next day would be difficult.

I regretted that I was not going to be at the meeting.

And many nouns and adjectives can be followed by that-clauses.

I admire your belief that you are always right.

The Minister is anxious that nothing should get into the papers.

3 the fact that ...

It is unusual for that-clauses to stand alone as subjects. They are more often introduced by the expression the fact.

The fact that she was foreign made it difficult for her to get a job. (NOT That she was foreign made it difficult ... )

The fact that Simon had disappeared didn't seem to worry anybody. (More natural than That Simon had disappeared didn't ... )

The fact also introduces that-clauses after prepositions (that-clauses cannot follow prepositions directly).

The judge paid no attention to the fact that she had just lost her husband. (NOT ... paid no attention to that she had just ... )

He held her completely responsible for the fact that she took food without paying for it. (NOT ... responsible for that she took ... )

In spite of the fact that she had three small children, he sent her to prison for six months. (NOT In spite of that she had ... )

For cases when prepositions are dropped before that-clauses, see 453.

4 preparatory it

It is often used as a preparatory subject or object for a that-clause (see 446-447).

It surprised me that he was still in bed. (More natural than That he was still in bed surprised me.)

She made it clear that she was not interested. (NOT She made that she was not interested clear.)

For reasons why that-clauses are often moved to the ends of sentences, see 512.

5 that-clauses after verbs, nouns and adjectives

Some verbs, nouns or adjectives can be followed by that-clauses; some cannot. Compare:

- I hope that you'll have a wonderful time.

I want you to have a wonderful time. (NOT I want that you'll have ... )

- I understood his wish that we should be there.

I understood the importance of our being there. (NOT ... the importance that we should be there.)

- It's essential that you visit the art museum.

It's worth your visiting the art museum. (NOT It's worth that you visit ... )

Unfortunately there is no easy way to decide which nouns, verbs or adjectives can be followed by that-clauses. It is best to check in a good dictionary.

6 verbs in that-clauses

In some kinds of that-clause, should + infinitive or subjunctives are often used instead of ordinary verb forms. For details, see 521, 567.

I insisted that she should see the doctor at once. (OR ... that she see ... )

7 compound conjunctions

Some conjunctions are made up of two or more words, including that. Common examples: so that, in order that, provided that, providing that, seeing that, given that, now that.

I got here early so that we could have a few minutes alone together.

I'll come with you providing that Bill doesn't mind.

OK, I'll help you, seeing that you asked so nicely.

Given that Monday is a holiday, we could go to Scotland for the weekend.

Now that the kids are at school, the house seems very quiet.

For that-clauses after reporting verbs ('indirect speech'), see 274-275.

For the relative pronoun that, see 494.

584 that: omission

We can often leave out the conjunction that, especially in an informal style.

1 indirect speech: He said (that) ...

That can be left out informally after many common reporting verbs.

James said (that) he was feeling better.

I thought (that) you were in Ireland.

The waiter suggested (that) we should go home.

That cannot be dropped after certain verbs, especially intransitive verbs - e.g. reply, email, shout.

James replied that he was feeling better. (NOT James replied he was ... )

She shouted that she was busy. (NOT She shouted she was busy.)

For sentences like Who do you think is outside? see 486.

2 after adjectives: I'm glad you're all right

We can leave out that in clauses after some common adjectives.

I'm glad (that) you're all right.

It's funny (that) he hasn't written.   We were surprised (that) she came.

3 not dropped after nouns

That is not usually dropped after nouns.

I did not believe his claim that he was ill. (More natural than ... his claim he was ill.)

He disagreed with Copernicus' view that the earth went round the sun. (NOT ... Copernicus' view the earth went ... )

4 conjunctions

That can be left out in an informal style in some common two-word conjunctions, such as so that, such ... that, now that, providing that, provided that, supposing that, considering that, assuming that.

Come in quietly so (that) she doesn't hear you.

I was having such a nice time (that) I didn't want to leave.

The garden looks nice now (that) we've got some flowers out.

You can borrow it provided (that) you bring it back tomorrow.

Assuming (that) nobody gets lost, we'll all meet again here at six o'clock.

5 relative structures

We can usually leave out the relative pronoun that when it is the object in a relative clause (see 495).

Look! There are the people (that) we met in Brighton.

Do it the way (that) I showed you.

585 the matter (with)

We use the matter (with) after something, anything, nothing and what. It means 'wrong (with)'.

Something's the matter with my foot.

Is anything the matter?

Nothing's the matter with the car - you're just a bad driver.

What's the matter with Frank today?

There is often used as a 'preparatory subject' (see 587).

There's something the matter with the TV.

Is there anything the matter?

For no matter what etc, see 378

586 there

The spelling there is used for two words with completely different pronunciations and uses.

1 adverb of place

There (pronounced /ðeə(r)/) is an adverb meaning 'in that place'.

What's that green thing over there?

There's the book I was looking for.

For the difference between here and there, see 245.

2 introductory subject

There (most often pronounced /ðə(r)/) is used as an introductory subject in sentences beginning there is, there are, there might be etc. For details, see 587.

There's a book under the piano.

587 there is

1 use

In sentences which say that something exists (or does not exist) somewhere, we usually use there as a kind of preparatory subject, and put the real subject after the verb. Note the pronunciation of there: usually /ðə(r)/, not /ðeə(r)/.

There's a hole in my tights. (More natural than A hole is in my tights.)

There's ice on the lake. (More natural than Ice is on the lake.)

It cannot be used in this way.

There is a lot of noise in the street. (NOT It is a lot of noise in the street.)

There are is used with plural subjects.

I don't know how many people there are in the waiting room. (NOT ... how many people there is ... )

However, there's can begin sentences with plural subjects in informal speech.

There's two policemen at the door, Dad.

There's some grapes in the fridge, if you 're still hungry.

2 indefinite subjects

We use there in this way particularly with subjects that have indefinite articles, no article, or indefinite determiners like some, any, no; and with indefinite pronouns like somebody, nothing.

There are some people outside.

There were no footsteps to be seen.   Is there anybody at home?

There was dancing in the streets.   There's something worrying me.

Note the use of wrong and the matter (see 585).

There's something wrong.   Is there anything the matter?

Note also the structures with sense, point, use (see 57) and need.

There's no sense in making him angry.

Is there any point in talking about it again?

Do you think there's any use trying to explain?

There's no need to hurry - we've got plenty of time.

3 all tenses

There can be used in this way with all tenses of be.

Once upon a time there were three wicked brothers.

There has never been anybody like you.

There will be snow on high ground.

And there can be used in question tags (see 488.4).

There'll be enough for everybody, won't there?

4 structures with auxiliary be

There can also be used in structures where be is a progressive or passive auxiliary. Note the word order.

There was a girl water-skiing on the lake. (= A girl was water-skiing ... ) (NOT There was water-skiing a girl ... )

There have been more Americans killed in road accidents than in all the wars since 1900. (= More Americans have been killed ... ) (NOT There have been killed more Americans ... )

There'll be somebody meeting you at the airport.

5 more complex structures

There can be used with modal verb + be, and with some other verbs (e.g. seem, appear, happen, tend) before to be.

There might be drinks if you wait for a bit.

There must be somebody at home - ring again.

If the police hadn't closed the road there could have been a bad accident.

There seem to be some problems. (NOT There seems to be ... )

Could you be quiet? There happens to be a lecture going on.

There tends to be jealousy when a new little brother or sister comes along.

Note also the structure there is certain/sure/likely/bound to be.

There is sure to be trouble when she gets his letter.

Do you think there's likely to be snow?

Infinitives (there to be) and -ing forms (there being) are also used.

I don't want there to be any more trouble.

What's the chance of there being an election this year?

6 other verbs

In a formal or literary style, some other verbs can be used with there besides be. These are mostly verbs which refer to states or arrivals.

In a small town in Germany there once lived a poor shoemaker.

There remains nothing more to be done.

Suddenly there entered a strange figure dressed all in black.

There followed an uncomfortable silence.

7 definite subjects

There is not normally used in a sentence with a definite subject (e.g. a noun with a definite article, or a proper name).

The door was open. (NOT There was the door open.)

James was at the party. (NOT There was James at the party.)

One exception to this is when we simply name people or things, in order to draw attention to a possible solution to a problem.

Who could we ask? ~ Well, there's James, or Miranda, or Ann, or Sue, ...

Where can he sleep? ~ Well, there's always the attic.

Another apparent exception is in stories that begin There was this ... , when this has an indefinite sense.

There was this man, see, and he couldn't get up in the mornings. So he ...

588 think

1 'have an opinion': not progressive

When think is used for opinions, progressive forms are unusual.

I don't think much of his latest book. (NOT I'm not thinking much ... )

Who do you think will win the election? (NOT Who are you thinking ... ?)

2 other meanings: progressive possible

When think has other meanings (e.g. consider or plan) progressives are possible.

You're looking worried. What are you thinking about? (NOT ... What do you think about?)

I'm thinking of changing my job.

3 -ing forms

After think, -ing forms can be used, but infinitives are not usually possible unless there is an object (see paragraph 4 below).

She's thinking of going to university next year. (NOT She's thinking to go ... )

However, think + infinitive can be used when we talk about remembering to do something, or having the good sense to do something.

Did you think to close the windows when it started raining?

4 think + object (+ to be) + complement

In a very formal style, think is sometimes followed by an object and an adjective or noun complement.

They thought her fascinating.   We thought him a fool.

It can be used as a preparatory object (see 442) for an infinitive or clause.

I thought it better to pretend that I knew nothing.

We thought it important that she should go home.

To be is occasionally used before the complement (suggesting objective judgement rather than subjective impression), but this is very unusual.

They thought him to be a spy.

In more normal styles, that-clauses are preferred after think.

They thought that she was fascinating.

We thought that he was a fool.

However, the passive equivalent of the object + complement structure is reasonably common, usually with to be.

He was thought to be a spy.

5 transferred negation: I don't think ...

When think is used to introduce a negative clause, we most often put not with think, rather than with the following clause (see 369).

I don't think it will rain. (More natural than I think it won't rain.)

Mary doesn't think she can come.

However, we can express surprise with I thought ... not.

Hello! I thought you weren't coming!

6 indirect speech

Think does not usually introduce indirect questions.

I was wondering if I could do anything to help. (More natural than I was thinking if ... )

7 I thought ...

Note the use of stressed I thought ... to suggest that the speaker was right. Compare:

It isn't very nice.~ Oh, dear. I thought you'd LIKE it. (But I was wrong.)

It's beautiful! ~ Oh, I am glad. I THOUGHT you'd like it. (And I was right.)

8 I had thought ... , I should think etc

Past perfect forms can suggest that the speaker was mistaken, especially when had is stressed.

I had thought that we were going to be invited to dinner.

I should think and I should have thought (also I would / I'd ... ) can introduce guesses.

I should think we'll need at least twelve bottles of wine.

I should (I would / I'd) have thought we could expect at least forty people.

This structure can also introduce criticisms.

I should have thought he could have washed his hands, at least.

For I (don't) think so and I thought so, see 539.

589 this and that

1 people and things

This/that/these/those can be used as determiners with nouns that refer to either people or things.

this child   that house

But when they are used as pronouns without nouns, this/that/these/those normally only refer to things

This costs more than that. (BUT NOT This says he's tired.)

Put those down - they're dirty. (BUT NOT Tell those to go away.)

However, this etc can be used as pronouns when we say who people are.

Hello. This is Elisabeth. Is that Ruth?   That looks like Mrs Walker.

Who's that?   These are the Smiths.

Note also Those who ... (see paragraph 6 below).

For a similar use of it to refer to people, see 428.9.

2 the difference

We use this/these for people and things which are close to the speaker.

This is very nice - can I have some more?

Get this cat off my shoulder.

I don't know what I'm doing in this country. (NOT ... in that country.)

Do you like these ear-rings? Bob gave them to me.

We use that/those for people and things which are more distant from the speaker, or not present.

That smells nice - is it for lunch?

Get that cat off the piano.

All the time I was in that country I hated it.

I like those ear-rings. Where did you get them?

3 time

This/these can refer to situations and events which are going on or just about to start.

I like this music. What is it?

Listen to this. You'll like it. (NOT Listen to that ... )

Watch this. This is a police message.

That/those can refer to situations and events which have just finished, or which are more distant in the past.

That was nice. What was it? (NOT This was nice ... )

Did you see that? Who said that?

Have you ever heard from that Scottish boy you used to go out with? (NOT ... this Scottish boy you used to go out with.)

That can show that something has come to an end .

. . . and that's how it happened.

Anything else?~ No, that's all, thanks. (in a shop)

OK That's it. I'm leaving. It was nice knowing you.

4 acceptance and rejection

We sometimes use this/these to show acceptance or interest, and that/those to show dislike or rejection. Compare:

Now tell me about this new boyfriend of yours.

I don't like that new boyfriend of yours.

5 on the telephone

On the telephone, British people use this to identify themselves, and that to ask about the hearer's identity.

Hello. This is Elisabeth. Is that Ruth?

Americans can also use this to ask about the hearer's identity.

Who is this?

6 that, those meaning 'the one(s)'

In a formal style, that and those can be used with a following description to mean 'the one(s)'. Those who ... means 'the people who .. .'

A dog's intelligence is much greater than that of a cat.

Those who can, do. Those who can't, teach.

7 this and that meaning 'so'

In an informal style, this and that are often used with adjectives and adverbs in the same way as so.

I didn't realise it was going to be this hot.

If your boyfriend's that clever, why isn't he rich?

In standard English, only so is used before a following clause.

It was so cold that I couldn't feel my fingers. (NOT It was that cold that ... )

Not all that can be used to mean 'not very'.

How was the play? ~ Not all that good.

8 other uses

Note the special use of this (with no demonstrative meaning) in conversational story-telling.

There was this travelling salesman, you see. And he wanted ...

That/those can suggest that an experience is familiar to everybody.

I can't stand that perfume of hers.

This use is common in advertisements.

When you get that empty feeling - break for a biscuit.

Earn more money during those long winter evenings. Telephone ...

The differences between this and that are similar to the differences between here and there (see 245), come and go (see 134) and bring and take (see 112).

For this one, that one etc, see 395.

For these and those with singular kind of, sort of, see 551.

For that which, see 498.19.

590 this/that and it: things that have just been mentioned

1 referring back

This, that and it can all be used to refer back to things or situations that have just been talked or written about. It does not give any special emphasis.

So she decided to paint her house pink. It upset the neighbours a bit.

This and that are more emphatic; they 'shine a light', so to speak, on the things or situations, suggesting 'an interesting new fact has been mentioned'.

So she decided to paint her house pink. This/That really upset the neighbours, as you can imagine.

This is preferred when there is more to say about the new subject of discussion.

So she decided to paint her house pink. This upset the neighbours so much that they took her to court, believe it or not. The case came up last week ...

Then in 1917 he met Andrew Lewis, This was a turning point in his career: the two men entered into a partnership which lasted until 1946, and ... (More natural than ... That was a turning point ... )

2 more than one thing

When more than one thing has been mentioned, it generally refers to the main subject of discussion; this and that generally refer to a new subject that has been introduced (often the last thing mentioned). Compare:

- We keep the ice-cream machine in the spare room. It is mainly used by the children, incidentally. (The machine is used by the children.)

We keep the ice-cream machine in the spare room. This/That is mainly used by the children, incidentally. (The spare room is used by the children.)

- I was carrying the computer to my office when I dropped it on the kitchen table. It was badly damaged. (The computer was damaged.)

I was carrying the computer to my office when I dropped it on the kitchen table. This was badly damaged. (The table was damaged.)

3 focus

It is only used to refer to things which are 'in focus' - which have already been talked about. This is preferred when we 'bring things into focus' before anything has been said about them. Compare:

I enjoyed 'Vampires' Picnic'. It/This is a film for all the family ...

VAMPIRES' PICNIC: This is a film for all the family ... (NOT VAMPIRES' PICNIC: It is a film far all the family ... )

4 referring forward

Only this can refer forward to something that has not yet been mentioned.

Now what do you think about this? I thought I'd get a job in Spain for six months, and then ... (NOT Now what do you think about that/it ... )

For more about this and that and the differences between them, see 589.

For more about it, see 428.

591 This is the first/last ... etc

1 This is the first time etc

We use the present perfect in sentences constructed with this/it/that is the first/second/third/only/best/worst etc.

This is the first time that I've heard her sing. (NOT This is the first time that I hear her sing.)

This is the fifth time you've asked me the same question (NOT This is the fifth time you ask ... )

That's the third cake you've eaten this morning.

It's one of the most interesting books I've ever read.

I'm flying to New York tomorrow. It'll be the first time I've travelled by plane.

When we talk about the past, we use the past perfect in these structures.

It was the third time he had been in love that year. (NOT ... the third time he was in love ... )

2 tenses with This is the last ... etc

Present (simple or progressive) and future tenses are both possible with This is the last ... and similar structures.

This is the last time I pay / I'm paying for you. (OR This is the last time I'll pay for you.)

That's the last letter he gets / he's getting from me. (OR That's the last letter he'll get from me.)

This is the last thing I'm going to say to you.

592 through: time

In American English, through can be used to mean 'up to and including'.

The park is open from May through September.

In British English, through is not normally used in this way. Instead, British people say, for example, to ... inclusive, or until the end of ...

The park is open from May to September inclusive. (OR from May until the end of September.)

593 time

1 countability and article use

Time has various uses, some countable and some uncountable (for full details see a good dictionary). Most of these are straightforward, but there are problems in two areas:

a) measure of duration: how long

When we talk about the number of hours, days etc that are needed to complete something, time is generally uncountable (and therefore used without a).

How much time do we need to load the van?

It took quite some time to persuade her to talk to us.

Don't worry - there's plenty of time.

This is a complete waste of time.

However, time is countable in certain expressions like a long/short time and quite a time.

I took a long time to get to sleep.   She was away for quite a time.

The time can be used to mean 'enough time'; the is often dropped.

Just come with me - I haven't got (the) time to explain.

For the use of take with expressions of time, see 576.

b) clock times

When we talk about clock times, time is countable.

Six o'clock would be a good time to meet.

She phoned me at various times yesterday.

The is dropped in the expression it's time.

It's time to stop. (NOT It's the time to stop.)

2 without preposition

Prepositions are often dropped before some common expressions with time.

He's busy. Why don't you come another time? (More natural than ... at another time.)

What time does the match start? (More natural than At what time ... ?)

You won't fool me this time.

In relative structures after time, that is often used instead of when in an informal style (or dropped).

Do you remember the time (that) Freddy pretended to be a ghost?

You can come up and see me any time (that) you like.

The first time (that) I saw her, my heart stopped.

For similar structures with other time words, and with place, way and reason, see 498.6.

3 on time and in time

On time means 'at the planned time', 'neither late nor early'. The opposite is 'early' or 'late'. It is often used to refer to timetabled events.

Only one of the last six trains has been on time. (NOT ... in time.)

Peter wants the discussion to start exactly on time. (NOT ... in time.)

In time means 'with enough time to spare', 'before the last moment'. The opposite is too late.

We arrived in time to get good seats. (NOT ... on time to get good seats.)

He would have died if they hadn't got him to hospital in time. (NOT ... got him to hospital on time.)

I nearly drove into the car in front, but I stopped just in time.

For structures after It's time, see 306.

For ways of telling the time, see 579.

For by the time, see 117.

For tenses with this is the first time ... , this is the last time ... and similar structures, see 591.

594 tonight

Tonight refers to the present or coming night, not to the past night (last night). Compare:

I had a terrible dream last night. (NOT I had a terrible dream tonight.)

I hope I sleep better tonight.

595 too

1 too and very

Too is different from very - too means 'more than enough', 'more than necessary' or 'more than is wanted'. Compare:

- He's a very intelligent child.

He's too intelligent for his class - he's not learning anything.

- It was very cold, but we went out.

It was too cold to go out, so we stayed at home.

2 too and too much

Before adjectives without nouns and before adverbs we use too, not too much.

You're too kind to me. (NOT You're too much kind to me.)

I arrived too early. (NOT I arrived too much early.)

Too much is used, for example, before nouns. For details see 596.

I've got too much work.

3 modification: much too, far too etc

Expressions which modify comparatives (see 140) also modify too.

much too old (NOT very too old)    a little too confident

a lot too big     a bit too soon

far too young     rather too often

4 not used before adjective + noun

Too is not normally used before adjective + noun.

I put down the bag because it was too heavy. (NOT ... the too heavy bag.)

She doesn't like men who are too tall. (NOT She doesn't like too tall men.)

Let's forget this problem - it's too difficult. (NOT ... this too difficult problem.)

In a rather formal style, too can be used before adjective + a/an + noun (see 14). Note the word order.

It's too cold a day for tennis.

5 too ... + infinitive

We can use an infinitive structure after too + adjective/adverb.

He's too old to work.    It's far too cold to go out.

We can also use an infinitive structure after too much/many.

There was too much snow to go walking.

If the infinitive has its own subject, this is introduced by for (see 291).

It's too late for the pubs to be open.

There was too much snow for us to go walking.

6 too salty to drink, etc

The subject of a sentence with too can also be the object of a following infinitive. (For more about this structure, see 284.4.) Object pronouns are not normally used after the infinitive in this case.

The water is too salty to drink. (NOT The water is too salty to drink it.)

However, object pronouns are possible in structures with for.

The water is too salty for us to drink (it).

Note the two possible meanings of sentences like He's too stupid to teach:

1. He's too stupid to be a teacher.

2. He's too stupid for anyone to teach - he can't be taught.

7 That's really too kind of you

In informal speech too can sometimes be used to mean 'very'.

Oh, that's really too kind of you - thank you so much.

I'm not feeling too well.

8 only too ...

The expression only too is used to mean 'very', 'extremely'. It is common in formal offers and invitations.

We shall be only too pleased if you can spend a few days with us.

For too meaning 'also', see 46.

596 too much and too many

1 the difference

The difference between too much and too many is the same as the difference between much and many (see 357). Too much is used with singular (uncountable) nouns; too many is used with plurals.

You put too much salt in the soup.

I've had too many late nights recently. (NOT ... too much late nights ... )

2 a bit too much, rather too many, etc

Expressions which modify comparatives and too (see 140) can also modify too much and too many.

She's wearing a bit too much make-up for my taste.

I've been to rather too many parties recently.

However, much too many is unusual.

You ask far too many questions. (NOT ... much too many questions.)

3 too much/many without a noun

We can drop a noun after too much/many, if the meaning is clear.

You've eaten too much.

Did you get any answers to your advertisement? ~ Too many.

For the difference between too and too much, see 595.2.

597 travel, journey, trip and voyage

Travel means 'travelling in general'. It is normally uncountable.

My interests are music and travel.

The plural travels is sometimes used; it suggests a rather grand programme of travelling or exploration.

He wrote a wonderful book about his travels in the Himalayas.

A journey is one 'piece' of travelling.

Did you have a good journey? (NOT Did you have a good travel?)

I met Jane on my last journey to England. (NOT ... my last travel.)

A trip is a return journey together with the activity (business or pleasure) which is the reason for the journey.

I'm going on a business trip next week. (= I'm going on a journey and I'm going to do some business.)

Peter's school is organising a skiing trip to the Alps.

Compare:

How was your journey? ~ The train broke down.

How was your trip? ~ Successful.

We do not so often use trip for expeditions which have a very serious purpose, are very hard and/or take a very long time.

In 1863 the President travelled to Dakota to make peace with the Indians. (NOT ... made a trip to Dakota to make peace ... )

Amundsen made his journey to the South Pole in 1911. (NOT Amundsen made his trip to the South Pole ... )

A long sea journey is often called a voyage.

Note the preposition: on a journey/trip/voyage.

598 turning verbs into nouns

1 using nouns for actions

It is very common to refer to an action by using a noun instead of a verb. Nouns of this kind often have the same form as the related verbs. The structure is especially common in an informal style.

There was a loud crash.     Just take a look at yourself.

Did I hear a cough?     Would you like a taste?

I need a wash.     What about a drink?

Let's have a talk about your plans.     Come on - one more try!

Let your sister have a go on the swing. (BrE)

2 common structures

Nouns of this kind are often introduced by 'general-purpose' verbs such as have, take, give, make, go for.

I'll have a think and let you know what I decide. (informal BrE)

I like to have/take a bath before I go to bed.

If it won't start, let's give it a push.

I don't know the answer, but I'm going to make a guess.

I try to go for a run every day.

We can use -ing forms in a similar way after do (see 160.3).

She does a bit of painting, but she doesn't like to show people.

These structures are very common when we talk about casual, unplanned or unsystematic recreational activity. Compare:

Let's have a swim. (More natural than Let's swim.)

Do you do any sport? ~ Yes, I swim.

For details of 'action-nouns' with have, and a list of common expressions, see 236.

For give, see 226. For go for, see 227. For go ... ing, see 228.

599 two-part verbs (1): phrasal verbs

1 verb + adverb particle: get back, walk out

Many English verbs can be followed by small adverbs (,adverb particles'). These two-part verbs are often called 'phrasal verbs'.

Get back!   She walked out.   I switched the light off.

Common adverb particles: about, across, ahead, along, (a)round, aside, away, back, by, down, forward, in, home, off, on, out, over, past, through, up.

Some of these words can also be used as prepositions. Compare:

I switched the light off. (adverb particle)

I jumped off the wall. (preposition)

For a detailed comparison, see 20.

2 idiomatic meanings: break out; turn up

The meaning of a two-word verb is often very different from the meanings of the two parts taken separately.

War broke out in 1939. (Broke out is not the same as broke + out.)

Joe turned up last night. (= appeared - not the same as turned + up.)

I looked the word up in the dictionary. (Look up is not the same as look + up.)

We had to put off the meeting till Tuesday. (Put off is not the same as put + off)

3 phrasal verbs with and without objects

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive (they do not have objects).

I got up at 7.00 today.   That colour really stands out.

Others are transitive.

Could you switch the light off?   I helped Ann to fill in the form.

4 word order with objects

Adverb particles can go either before or after noun objects (unlike most adverbs - see 21.1).

She switched off the light. OR She switched the light off.

But they can only go after pronoun objects.

She switched it off. (NOT She switched off it.)

Is that the light which you switched off? (NOT ... the light off which you switched?)

Give me back my watch. OR Give me my watch back. (NOT Give back me my watch.)

5 verbs with prepositions and particles together

A few verbs can be used with both an adverb particle and a preposition (making them three-part verbs).

I get on with her quite well.

Stop talking and get on with your work.

It's hard to put up with people who won't stop talking.

If you're on the road on Saturday night, look out for drunk drivers.

I'll think about it and get back to you.

She went up to the policeman and explained her problem.

I'm looking forward to the party.

For details of particular two-word verbs, see a good dictionary.

600 two-part verbs (2): prepositional verbs

1 verb + preposition: listen to; look at

Many English verbs are regularly followed by prepositions before objects.

You never listen to me. (NOT You never listen me.)

Alan walked down the road without looking at anybody.

Prepositions are not used when there is no object.

Listen! (NOT Listen to!)

2 idiomatic meanings: look after, get over

The meaning of a two-word verb can be very different from the meanings of the two parts taken separately.

Could you look after the kids while I'm out? (Look after is not the same as look + after.)

It took him six months to get over his illness. (Get over is not the same as get + over.)

3 word order: What are you thinking about?

When an object comes at the beginning of a clause (e.g. in a question or relative clause), a two-word verb usually stays together, so that a preposition can be separated from its object and go at the end of the clause. For details of this and other preposition-final structures, see 452.

What are you thinking about? (NOT About what are you thinking?)

I've found the book which I was looking for. (More natural in an informal style than ... the book for which I was looking.)

For the difference between prepositions and adverb particles, see 20.

For prepositional verbs in the passive, see 416.

601 unless

1 meaning

Unless has a similar meaning to if ... not, in the sense of 'except if'.

Come tomorrow unless I phone. (= ... if I don't phone / except if I phone.)

I'll take the job unless the pay is too low. (= if the pay isn't too low / except if the pay is too low.)

I'll be back tomorrow unless there's a plane strike.

Let's have dinner out - unless you're too tired.

I'm going to dig the garden this afternoon, unless it rains.

2 when unless cannot be used

Unless means 'except if'. Unless is not used when the meaning is more like 'because ... not'. Compare:

- OK So we'll meet this evening at 7.00 - unless my train's late. (= ... except if my train's late.)

My wife will be angry if I'm not home by 7.00. (NOT My wife will be angry unless I get home by 7.00. - She will be angry because I'm not home.)

- I'll drive over and see you, unless the car breaks down. (= ... except if the car breaks down.)

I'll be surprised if the car doesn't break down soon (NOT I'll be surprised unless the car breaks down soon. - I'll be surprised because it doesn't break down.)

3 tenses

In clauses with unless, we usually use present tenses to refer to the future (see 580).

I'll be in all day unless the office phones. (NOT ... unless the office will phone.)

For more about sentences with if, see 256-264.

602 until

1 until and till

These two words can be used both as prepositions and conjunctions. They mean exactly the same. Till (AmE also 'til) is informal.

OK, then, I won't expect you until/till midnight.

I'll wait until/till I hear from you.

The new timetable will remain in operation until June 30.

2 until/till and to

To can sometimes be used as a preposition of time with the same meaning as until/till. This happens after from ...

I usually work from nine to five. (OR ... from nine until/till five.)

We can also use to when counting the time until a future event.

It's another three weeks to the holidays. (OR ... until/till the holidays.)

In other cases, to is not generally used.

I waited for her until six o'clock, but she didn't come. (NOT I waited for her to six o'clock ... )

For AmE from ... through, see 592.

3 distance and quantity: until/till not used

Until/till is used only to talk about time. To talk about distance, we use to, as far as or up to; up to is also used to talk about quantity.

We walked as far as /up to the edge of the forest. (NOT ... till the edge ... )

The minibus can hold up to thirteen people. (NOT ... until thirteen people.)

You can earn up to £500 a week in this job.

4 tenses with until

Present tenses are used to refer to the future after until (see 580).

I'll wait until she gets here. (NOT ... until she will get here.)

Present perfect and past perfect tenses can emphasise the idea of completion.

You're not going home until you've finished that report.

I waited until the rain had stopped.

5 structure with Not until ...

In a literary style it is possible to begin a sentence with Not until ..., using inverted word order in the main clause (see 302).

Not until that evening was she able to recover her self-control.

Not until I left home did I begin to understand how strange my family was.

6 until and by: states and actions

We use until to talk about a situation or state that will continue up to a certain moment. We use by (see 117) to say that an action or event will happen at or before a future moment. Compare:

- Can I stay until the weekend?

Yes, but you'll have to leave by Monday midday at the latest. (= at twelve on Monday or before.)

- Can you repair my watch if I leave it until Saturday?

No, but we can do it by next Tuesday. (NOT ... until next Tuesday.)

7 until and before

Not until/till can mean the same as not before.

I won't be seeing Judy until/before Tuesday.

And both until and before can be used to say how far away a future event is.

It'll be ages until/before we meet again.

There's only six weeks left until/before Christmas.

603 up and down

1 'towards/away from the centre'

Up and down are not only used to refer to higher and lower positions. They can also refer to more or less important or central places. (Trains to London used to be called 'up trains', and trains from London 'down trains'.)

The ambassador walked slowly up the room towards the Queen's throne.

She ran down the passage, out of the front door and down the garden.

We'll be going down to the country for the weekend.

But in the US downtown refers to the central business/entertainment area.

2 north and south

People often use up and down for movements towards the north and south (perhaps because north is at the top of a map page).

I work in London, but I have to travel up to Glasgow every few weeks.

3 'along'

Sometimes both up and down are used to mean 'along', 'further on', with little or no difference of meaning.

The nearest post office is about half a mile up/down the road.

604 used + infinitive

1 meaning

We use used + infinitive to talk about past habits and states which are now finished.

I used to smoke, but now I've stopped. (NOT I was used re smoke ... )

That bingo hall used to be a cinema.

2 only past

Used to ... has no present form (and no progressive, perfect, infinitive or -ing forms). To talk about present habits and states, we usually just use the simple present tense (see 462).

He smokes. (NOT He uses to smoke.)

Her brother still collects stamps.

3 questions and negatives

When questions and negatives are written, they often have did ... used instead of did ... use.

What did people use(d) to do in the evenings before TV?

I didn't use(d) to like opera, but now I do.

The contraction usedn't is also possible.

I usedn't to like opera.

But the most common negative is never used ....

I never used to like opera.

In a formal style, questions and negatives without do are possible, but these are not very common.

I used not to like opera, but now I do. (OR I used to not like opera ... )

Used you to play football at school?

These forms are not used in tags.

You used not to like him, did you? (NOT ... used you?)

4 when used to ... is not used

Used to refers to things that happened at an earlier stage of one's life and are now finished: there is an idea that circumstances have changed. It is not used simply to say what happened at a past time, or how long it took, or how many times it happened.

I worked very hard last month. (NOT I used to work very hard last month.)

I lived in Chester for three years. (NOT I used to live in Chester for three years.)

I went to France seven times last year. (NOT I used to go to France seven times last year.)

5 word order

Mid-position adverbs (see 24) can go before or after used. The position before used is more common in an informal style.

I always used to be afraid of dogs. (informal)

I used always to be afraid of dogs. (formal)

6 pronunciation

Note the pronunciation of used /ju:st/ and use /ju:s/ in this structure.

7 used + infinitive and be used to ...ing

Used + infinitive has a quite different meaning from be used to ... ing (see next section). Compare:

I didn't use to drive a big car. (= Once I didn't drive a big car, but now I do.) (NOT I wasn't used to drive a big car.)

I wasn't used to driving a big car. (= Driving a big car was a new and difficult experience - I hadn't done it before.)

For the difference between used to and would, see 633.8.

605 [be] used to

1 meaning

If a person is used to something, it is familiar; he or she has experienced it so much that it is no longer strange or new.

I've lived in Central London for six years now, so I'm used to the noise.

At the beginning I couldn't understand Londoners because I wasn't used to the accent.

2 structures

Be used to can be followed by -ing forms, but not infinitives (see 298.2).

I'm used to driving in London now, but it was hard at the beginning. (NOT I'm used to drive in London ... )

It was a long time before she was used to working with old people.

Used is an adjective in this structure, and can be modified by quite or very.

I'm quite used to her little ways.

3 get used to ...ing etc

Get, become and sometimes grow (see 128) can also be used before used to (...ing).

You'll soon get used to living in the country.

Little by little, he became used to his new family.

It took them a long time to grow used to getting up in the night.

4 pronunciation

Note that used is pronounced /ju:st/ in this structure.

606 verb complementation: what can follow a verb?

1 different verbs, different structures

Different verbs can be followed by different kinds of word and structure. This is partly a matter of meaning: after a verb like eat or break, for instance, it is normal to expect a noun; after try or stop, it is natural to expect a verb. It is also partly a matter of grammatical rules that have nothing to do with meaning. Before an object, wait is followed by for; expect has no preposition. One can tell somebody something, but one cannot explain somebody something. One hopes to see somebody, but one looks forward to seeing somebody. One advises somebody to see the doctor, but one does not suggest somebody to see the doctor. Unfortunately there are no simple rules for this kind of problem; it is necessary to learn, for each verb, what kind of structures can follow it. A good dictionary will normally give this information.

2 verb + object; transitive and intransitive verbs

Some verbs are usually followed by nouns or pronouns that act as direct objects. In grammars these verbs are called 'transitive'. Examples are invite, surprise.

Let's invite Sally and Bruce. (BUT NOT Let's invite.)

You surprised me. (BUT NOT You surprised.)

Some verbs are not normally followed by direct objects. These are called 'intransitive'. Examples are sit, sleep.

Do sit down. (BUT NOT Do sit that chair.)

I usually sleep well. (BUT NOT She slept the baby.)

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.

England lost the match.   Let's eat.

England lost.   I can't eat this.

Some transitive verbs can be followed by two objects (indirect and direct). For details, see 610.

I'll send you the form tomorrow.

I'm going to buy Sarah some flowers.

For verb structures used as objects, see paragraphs 8-10 below.

For structures with object complements, see paragraph 10 below.

3 She opened the door / The door opened

Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively with different kinds of subject; the intransitive use has a meaning rather like a passive (see 412) or reflexive (see 493) verb. Compare:

- She opened the door.   - The wind's moving the curtain.

The door opened.   The curtain's moving.

For more examples, see 609.

4 verbs with prepositions and particles

Many verbs need prepositions before their objects.

Why are you looking at me like that? (NOT Why are you looking me ... ?)

I'd like you to listen to this. (NOT ... to listen this.)

Let's talk about your plans. (NOT Let's talk your plans.)

The preposition is dropped when there is no object.

Look! (NOT Look at!)

Other verbs can be used with adverb particles (see 20). Some of these combinations are transitive; others are intransitive.

We'll have to put off our visit to Scotland.   It's time to get up.

For more about two-part verbs like these, see 599-600.

5 complements of place

Usually, a preposition is necessary before an expression of place.

She arrived at the station last night. (NOT She arrived the station ... )

Don't walk on the grass. (NOT Don't walk the grass.)

A few verbs can be used with direct objects referring to place.

I like climbing mountains. (NOT I like climbing on mountains.)

Some verbs are incomplete without an expression of place.

He lives in York. (BUT NOT He lives.)

She got off the bus. (BUT NOT She got.)

6 link verbs

Some verbs are followed not by an object, but by a subject complement - an expression which describes the subject. These are called 'link verbs'. For details, see 328.

Your room is a mess.   That looks nice.

The toilets are upstairs.   I felt a complete idiot.

7 verb + verb: auxiliaries

Many verbs can be followed by forms of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs are used with other verbs to make questions and negatives, progressive forms, perfect forms, and passives. For details, see 85.

Do you want some tea?   Where have you been?

It doesn't matter.   These are made in France.

Modal auxiliary verbs are used with other verbs to add ideas such as certainty, probability, futurity, permission and obligation. For details, see 353-354.

You must be tired.   The lecture will start at ten.

The car may need a new engine.   Can I borrow your paper?

We ought to invite the Maxwells this weekend.

8 verb + verb: other verbs

Many verbs besides auxiliaries can be followed by forms of other verbs (or by structures including other verbs). This can happen, for example, if we talk about our attitude to an action: the first verb describes the attitude and the second refers to the action. The second verb structure is often rather like the direct object of the first verb.

I enjoy playing cards.

I saw that she was crying. I hope to see you soon.

Different structures are possible, depending on the particular verb. Some verbs can be followed by infinitives with or without to (see 282-283), some verbs can be followed by -ing forms, with or without a preposition (see 296), and some by clauses. Many verbs can be followed by more than one of these structures, often with a difference of meaning or use. For each verb, it is necessary to know which structures are possible.

We seem to have a problem. (NOT We seem having a problem.)

Can I help wash up?

It's not very easy to stop smoking. (NOT ... to stop to smoke.)

We're thinking of moving. (NOT We're thinking to move.)

I suggest that you see a solicitor. OR I suggest seeing a solicitor. (NOT I suggest you to see a solicitor.)

Sometimes the first verb does not give information about the subject - it says more about the action which the second verb refers to.

I happened to see Alice the other day.

We're starting to get invited to some of the neighbours' parties.

My keys seem to have disappeared.

It is possible to have 'chains' of verbs following each other.

I keep forgetting to go shopping.

Don't let me stop you working.

He seems to be trying to sit up.

I don't want to have to get her to start telling lies.

9 verb + object + verb

Many verbs can be followed by an object as well as a verb structure.

Can I help you wash up?

I'd like you to meet Sally.

We all want you to be happy. (NOT We all want that you are happy.)

We've got to stop him making a fool of himself.

When are you going to get the clock repaired?

Nobody told me that you were here.

For more about verb + object + infinitive, see 283.

For structures with object + -ing form, see 296.

10 verb + object + complement

Some transitive verbs can be followed by an object together with an object complement (an expression that gives more information about the object). For details, see 607.

You make me nervous.   Let's paint it blue.

See the Index for problems with the structures after some common verbs.

For information about other verbs, see a good dictionary.

607 verb + object + complement

1 adjective and noun complements

Some transitive verbs can be followed by an object together with an object complement (an expression that gives more information about the object). This is often an adjective or noun phrase.

You make me nervous.

She's driving us crazy.   I find her attitude strange.

Let's cut it short.   Don't call me a liar.

I don't know why they elected him President.

Would you like to join the committees ~ I would consider it an honour.

A long and heavy object may come after the complement. Compare:

He painted the wall red. (NOT He painted red the wall.)

He painted red all of the kitchen walls as well as the window frames and ceiling.

2 see, describe etc: structure with as

After some verbs, an object complement is introduced by as. This is common when we say how we see or describe somebody/something.

I see you as a basically kind person.

She described her attacker as a tall dark man with a beard.

His mother regards him as a genius.

After tests, they identified the metal as gold.

The structure is also possible with as being.

The police do not regard him as (being) dangerous.

3 verbs of thinking and feeling: structure with to be

Some verbs that refer to thoughts, feelings and opinions (e.g. believe, consider, feel, know, find, understand) can be followed by object + infinitive (usually to be) in a formal style. In an informal style, that-clauses are more common.

I considered him to be an excellent choice. (Less formal: I considered that he was ... )

We supposed them to be married. (Less formal: We supposed that they were ... )

They believed her to be reliable. (Less formal: They believed that she was reliable.)

This structure is very unusual with think.

I thought that she was mistaken. (More natural than I thought her to he mistaken.)

To be can be dropped after consider.

I considered him (to be) an excellent choice.

Passive forms of these structures may be less formal than active forms (see paragraph 6 below).

For more details of structures with feel, see 202; for know, see 313; for think, see 588.

4 They found her (to be) ...

After find + object, to be suggests the result of a test or investigation. Compare:

- Everybody found her very pleasant.

The doctors found her to be perfectly fit.

- I found the bicycle very comfortable to ride.

The testers found this bicycle to be the best value for money.

5 structures with preparatory it

When the object of a verb is a clause, infinitive structure or -ing structure, and there is an object complement, it is common to use it as a preparatory object. Compare:

She made her views clear.

She made it clear that she disagreed. (NOT She made that she disagreed clear.)

For details of this structure, see 447.

6 passive structures

Passive versions of these structures are common.

It was painted blue.

He was elected President.

Her attacker was described as a tall man with a beard.

The metal was identified as gold.

He is not regarded as being dangerous.

For a long time he was thought to be a spy.

She was believed to belong to a revolutionary organisation.

Seven people are understood to have been injured in the explosion.

It was considered impossible to change the date.

For the structures that are possible after a particular verb, see a good dictionary.

608 verbs of movement: she ran in etc

When we want to talk about a movement, its direction and its nature, there are several possibilities. We can use three separate words for the three ideas:

She came in running.

We can use a verb which includes the idea of direction, and describe the nature of the movement separately:

She entered running.

Or we can use a verb which makes clear the nature of the movement, and describe the direction separately:

She ran in.

In English, the third of these solutions is the most common.

She danced across the garden. (More natural than She crossed the garden dancing.)

I jumped down the stairs. (More natural than I came down the stairs jumping.)

They crawled out of the cellar.

We flew past Mont Blanc.

609 verbs with both active and passive meanings

1 She opened the door / The door opened

Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively with different kinds of subject. The intransitive use has a meaning rather like a passive (see 412) or reflexive (see 493) verb. Compare:

- She opened the door.   - Something woke her.

The door opened.   Suddenly she woke.

- The wind's moving the curtain.   - I can't start the car.

The curtain's moving.   The car won't start.

- Marriage has really changed her.

She's changed a lot since she got married.

- We're selling a lot of copies of your book.

Your book's selling well.

2 It scratches easily

The intransitive structure is used with a lot of verbs that refer to things we can do to materials: for example bend, break. crack, melt, polish, scratch, stain, tear, unscrew.

Be careful what you put on the table - it scratches easily. (= You can easily scratch it.)

These glasses are so fragile: they break if you look at them.

The carpet's made of a special material that doesn't stain.

The handle won't unscrew - can you help me?

610 verbs with two objects

1 indirect and direct objects: I gave John the keys

Many verbs can have two objects - usually a person and a thing. This often happens with verbs that are used to talk about transferring or communicating things from one person to another, or doing things for somebody. A few other verbs are also used in this way. Common examples:

bet | get | make | play | sell | teach
bring | give | offer | post | send | tell
build    | kick    | owe     | promise    | show    | throw
buy | leave   | pass | read | sing | wish
cost | lend | pay | refuse   | take | write

The thing that is given, sent, bought etc is called the 'direct object'; the person who gets it is the 'indirect object'. Most often, the indirect object comes first.

I bet you ten dollars you can't beat me at chess.

He built the children a tree-house.

Shall I buy you some chocolate while I'm out?

Could you bring me the paper?

The repair cost me a lot.

I gave John the keys.

If you're going upstairs, could you get me my coat?

He left his children nothing when he died.

Lend me your bike, can you?

I'll make you a cake tomorrow.

I owe my sister a lot of money.

Can I play you my new album?

I'll post her the report tomorrow.

They promised me all sorts of things.

Daddy, read me a story.

He sent his mother a postcard.

Let's take her some flowers.

Will you teach me poker?

We bought the children pizzas.

Throw me the ball.

We wish you a Merry Christmas.

Not all verbs with this kind of meaning can be used like this - see paragraph 6.

2 indirect object last: I gave the keys to John

We can also put the indirect object after the direct object. In this case it normally has a preposition (usually to or for).

I gave the keys to John.

I handed my licence to the policeman.

Mrs Norman sent some flowers to the nurse.

Mother bought the ice-cream for you, not for me.

3 two pronouns: Lend them to her

When both objects are pronouns, it is common to put the indirect object last. To is occasionally dropped after it in informal British English.

Lend them to her.   Send some to him.   Give it (to) me.

It is also possible to put the indirect object first.

Give her one.   Send him some.

However, this structure is avoided in some cases: phrases ending with it or them (e.g. He gave you it or Send them them) are often felt to be unnatural.

4 wh-questions: Who did you buy it for?

Prepositions are used in wh-questions referring to the indirect object.

Who did you buy it for? (NOT Who did you buy it?)

Who was it sent to? (NOT Who was it sent?)

5 passives: I've been given a picture

When these verbs are used in passive structures, the subject is usually the person who receives something, not the thing which is sent, given etc.

I've just been given a lovely picture.

We were all bought little presents.

However, the thing which is given, sent etc can be the subject if necessary.

What happened to the stuff he left behind? ~ Well, the picture was given to Mr Ferguson.

For details of these passive structures, see 415.

6 structures with donate, push, carry, explain, suggest, describe and take

Not all verbs with this kind of meaning can be followed by indirect object + direct object. The structure is not possible, for example, with donate, push, carry, explain, suggest or describe.

They donated money to the museum. (BUT NOT They donated the museum money.)

I pushed the plate to Ann. (BUT NOT I pushed Ann the plate.)

He carried the baby to the doctor. (BUT NOT He carried the doctor the baby.)

I'd like him to explain his decision to us. (BUT NOT ... to explain us his decision.)

Can you suggest a good dentist to me? (BUT NOT Can you suggest me a good dentist?)

Please describe your wife to us. (BUT NOT Please describe us your wife.)

Take (to) can be used with indirect object + direct object, but not take (from).

I took her some money. (= I took some money to her, NOT ... from her.)

7 one object or two

Some verbs can be followed by either a direct object, or an indirect object, or both.

I asked John.   I asked a question.   I asked John a question.

Other verbs like this include teach, tell, pay, show, sing, play and write. Note that when sing, play and write have no direct object, we put to before the indirect object. Compare:

- Sing her a song.

Sing to her. (NOT Sing her.)

- Write me a letter.

Write to me when you get home. (More common than Write me ... in standard British English.)

For structures with object complements (e.g. They made him captain), see 607.

611 very and very much

1 adjectives and adverbs: very kind, very quickly

We use very, not very much, before adjectives and adverbs.

You're very kind. (NOT You're very much kind.)

The situation is very serious. (NOT ... very much serious.)

I came very quickly. (NOT ... very much quickly.)

However, very much is used before comparatives.

I'm very much happier in my new job. (NOT ... very happier ... )

For very with superlatives (very first, very best etc), see 140.4.

For the very same, see 503.

2 not very

Not very expresses quite a low degree.

It's not very warm - you'd better take a coat.

That meal wasn't very expensive. (= quite cheap.)

Note that little cannot be used in this way.

He's not very imaginative. (NOT He's little imaginative.)

3 past participles: very much loved, very worried

Before past participles we normally use very much.

She was very much loved by her grandchildren. (NOT She was very loved.)

Journey times will be very much reduced by the new road. (NOT ... very reduced ... )

But we use very with some past participles that are used as adjectives. For details, see 410.4.

I'm very worried about Angela. (NOT ... very much worried ... )

We were very surprised when Pete passed his exam. (More common than ... very much surprised ... )

4 very much (adverb)

Very much can be an adverb.

We very much enjoyed the party. (NOT We very enjoyed.)

We do not normally put very much between a verb and its object.

I very much like mountains. (NOT I like very much mountains.)

Very much can also be a determiner before a noun.

She didn't have very much money.

Have you got very much work to do?

Very much is not often used as a determiner in affirmative clauses (see 357.5).

There was a lot of snow on the road. (NOT There was very much snow.)

For very ... indeed, see 273.

612 wait

Wait can be followed by an infinitive.

I'll wait to hear from you before I do anything.

Before a direct object, wait for is used.

Please wait for me here. (NOT Please wait me here.)

That-clauses are not used, but an object + infinitive structure is possible.

We'll have to wait for the photos to be ready. (NOT ... wait that the photos are ready.)

The time preposition for is often dropped after wait.

I waited (for) a very long time for her answer.

The transitive verb await is formal, and is used mostly with abstract objects.

We're still awaiting instructions.

For the difference between wait for and expect, see 196.

613 want

1 infinitive with to

After want, we normally use an infinitive with to.

I don't want to come back here ever again. (NOT I don't want come back ... )

That-clauses are not normally used after want, but an object + infinitive structure (see 283) is possible.

Do you want me to make you some coffee? (NOT Do you want (that) I make you some coffee?)

I don't want that woman to come here.

2 structure with object complement

Want can be followed by an object together with a complement (adjective, adverb or past participle) to express ideas such as change or result.

They wanted him dead.   She doesn't want him back.

I want her out of there now.   We want the job finished by Tuesday.

To be or as is used before a noun complement.

I want you to be my friend. (OR ... as my friend. NOT I want you my friend.)

3 want meaning 'need'

In informal British English, we can say that a thing 'wants' (= needs) something, particularly with reference to actions.

That car wants a clean.   Your hair wants a good brush.

In this case, want can be followed by an -ing form (like need - see 366).

This coat wants cleaning. (= ... needs to be cleaned.)

4 'I wanna hold your hand'

In informal speech, want to often sounds like 'wanna'. It is sometimes spelt like this in order to represent conversational pronunciation - for example in comic strips.

For to used instead of a whole infinitive (e.g. I don't want to, thanks), see 182.

For want and will, see 629.8.

614 -ward(s)

Backward(s), forward(s), northward(s), outward(s) and similar words can be used as adjectives or adverbs.

1 adjectives

When they are used as adjectives, they do not have -s,

This country is very backward in some ways.

You're not allowed to make a forward pass in rugby.

He was last seen driving in a northward direction.

2 adverbs

When these words are adverbs, they can generally be used with or without -s.

The forms with -s are generally a little more common in British English, and the forms without -s in American English.

Why are you moving backward(s) and forward(s)?

If we keep going upward(s) we must get to the top.

Let's start driving homeward(s).

In some figurative expressions such as look forward to, bring forward, put forward, the form without -s is always used.

I look forward to hearing from you.

She put forward a very interesting suggestion.

3 other words

Towards and afterwards are the usual forms in British English; in American English, toward and afterward are also common.

615 way

1 preposition dropped

In an informal style, we usually drop the prepositions in or by before way.

You're doing it (in) the wrong way.   Come this way.

Do it (in) any way you like.   We went there the usual way.

2 relative structures

In an informal style, we often say the way (that) instead of the way in/by which.

I don't like the way (that) you talk to me.

Let's go the way (that) we went yesterday.

3 infinitive or -ing

After way (meaning 'method'/'manner') we can use an infinitive structure or of ... ing. There is no important difference between the two structures.

There's no way to prove / of proving that he was stealing.

4 way of and means of

Way of is unusual before a noun (except in the common expression way of life). We use means of or method of instead.

The 19th century saw a revolution in means of transport. (NOT ... ways of transport. )

They tried all possible methods of instruction, but the child learnt nothing.

5 in the way and on the way

These expressions are quite different. In the/my/etc way is used for obstacles - things that stop people getting where they want to.

I can't get the car out because those boxes are in the way.

Please don't stand in the kitchen door - you're in my way.

On the/my etc way means 'during the journey/movement' or 'coming'.

We'll have lunch on our way.   Spring is on the way.

For by the way, see 157.8.

616 weak and strong forms

1 What are weak and strong forms?

Some English words - for example at, for, have, and, us - have two pronunciations: one is used when they are not stressed, and the other when they are. Compare:

I'm looking at /ət/ you.   What are you looking at /æt/?

2 stressed or not?

Most of these words are prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, articles and auxiliary verbs. Such words are not usually stressed, because they are generally found together with other more important words which carry the stress. So the unstressed ('weak') pronunciation is the normal one. This usually has the vowel /ə/ or no vowel; a few weak forms are pronounced with /ɪ/.

However, these words can be stressed when they are emphasised, or when there is no other word to carry the stress. In these cases the 'strong' pronunciation is used. This has the vowel that corresponds to the spelling. Compare:

- I must /məs/ go now.

I really must /mʌst/ stop smoking. (stressed for emphasis)

- I was /wəz/ late.

It was /wəz/ raining.

Yes, it was /wɒz/. (stressed at end of sentence: there is no other word to be stressed.)

- Where have /əv/ you been?

You might have /əv/ told me.

What did you have /hæv/ for breakfast? (non-auxiliary verb)

Contracted negatives always have a strong pronunciation.

can't /kɑ:nt/   mustn't /'mʌsnt/   wasn't /'wɒznt/

3 list of words with weak and strong forms

The most important words which have weak and strong forms are:

| Weak form | Strong form
a | /ə/ | /eɪ/ (unusual)
am | /(ə)m/ | /æm/
an | /ən/ | /æn/ (unusual)
and | /(ə)n(d)/ | /ænd/
are | /ə(r)/ | /ɑ:(r)/
as | /əz/ | /æz/
at | /ət/ | /æt/
be | /bɪ/ | /bi:/
been | /bɪn/ | /bi:n/
but | /bət/ | /bʌt/
can | /k(ə)n/ | /kæn/
could | /kəd/ | /kʊd/
do | /d(ə)/ | /du:/
does | /dəz/ | /dʌz/
for | /fə(r)/ | /fɔ:(r)/
from | /frəm/ | /frɒm/
had | /(h)əd/ | /hæd/
has | /(h)əz/ | /hæz/
have | /(h)əv/ | /hæv/
he | /(h)ɪ/ | /hi:/
her | /(h)ə(r)/ | /hɜ:(r)/
him | /(h)ɪm/ | /hɪm/
his | /(h)ɪz/ | /hɪz/
is | /z,s/ | /ɪz/
must | /m(ə)s(t)/ | /mʌst/
not | /nt/ | /nɒt/
of | /əv/ | /ɒv/
our | /ɑ:(r)/ | /aʊə(r)/
saint | /s(ə)nt/ (BrE only) | /seɪnt/
shall | /ʃ(ə)l/ | /ʃæl/
she | /ʃɪ/ | /ʃi:/
should | /ʃ(ə)d/ | /ʃʊd/
sir | /sə(r)/ | /sɜ:(r)/
some (see 546) | /s(ə)m/ | /sʌm/
than | /ð(ə)n/ | /ðæn/ (rare)
that (conj.) | /ð(ə)t/ | /ðæt/
the | /ðə, ðɪ/ | /ði:/
them | /ð(ə)m/ | /ðem/
there (see 586) | /ðə(r)/ | /ðeə(r)/
to | /tə/ | /tu:/
us | /əs/ | /ʌs/
was | /w(ə)z/ | /wɒz/
we | /wɪ/ | /wi:/
were | /wə(r)/ | /wɜ:(r)/
who | /hʊ/ | /hu:/
would | /wəd, əd/ | /wʊd/
will | /w(ə)l/ | /wɪl/
you | /ju/ | /ju:/
your | /jə(r)/ | /jɔ:(r)/

617 well

1 well and good

Well and good can have similar meanings, but in this case well is an adverb, while good is an adjective. Compare:

- The car runs well. (adverb modifying runs) (NOT The car runs good)

It's a well-made car. (adverb modifying made)

It's a good car. (adjective modifying car)

- He teaches very well.

I like that teacher. He's good. (NOT He's well.)

- She speaks English well. (NOT She speaks English good.)

She speaks good English.

Her English is good.

Note that we cannot say She speaks well English. (Adverbs cannot usually go between the verb and the object - see 21.1.)

2 well = 'in good health'

There is also an adjective well, meaning 'in good health'.

How are you? ~ Quite well, thanks.

I don't feel very well.

Note that the adjective well is only used to talk about health. Compare:

When I'm in the mountains I am always well.

When I'm with you I'm happy. (NOT When I'm with you I'm well.)

Well is not common before a noun. We can say She's well, but it is less usual to say, for example, She's a well girl.

For ill and sick, see 266. For well as a discourse marker, see 157.16,17,20.

618 when and if

A person who says when (referring to the future) is sure that something will happen. A person who says if is unsure whether it will happen. Compare:

- I'll see you at Christmas when we're all at Sally's place. (We are certain to be at Sally's place.)

I'll see you in August if I come to New York. (Perhaps I'll come to New York, perhaps not.)

To talk about repeated, predictable situations and events (in the sense of 'whenever'), both when and if can be used with little difference of meaning.

When/If you heat ice it turns to water.

When/If I'm in Liverpool I usually stay with my sister.

619 where (to)

To is often dropped after where.

Where are you going (to)?   Where does this road lead (to)?

To is not normally dropped in the short question Where to?

Could you send this off for me? ~ Where to?

For where in relative clauses. see 494.10

620 whether ... or ...

We can use whether ... or as a double conjunction, with a similar meaning to It doesn't matter whether or ...

The ticket will cost the same, whether we buy it now or wait till later.

Whether we go by bus or train, it'll take at least six hours.

Several structures are possible with whether ... or not.

Whether you like it or not, ...

Whether or not you like it, ...

Whether you like it or whether you don't, ...

For whether and if, see 621.

621 whether and if

1 indirect questions

Whether and if can both introduce indirect questions.

I'm not sure whether/if I'll have time.

I asked whether/if she had any letters for me.

After verbs that are more common in a formal style, whether is preferred.

We discussed whether we should close the shop. (More normal than We discussed if ... )

In a formal style, whether is usually preferred in a two-part question with or.

The Directors have not decided whether they will recommend a dividend or reinvest the profits.

If an indirect question is fronted (see 513), whether is used.

Whether I'll have time I'm not sure at the moment.

2 prepositions

After prepositions, only whether is possible.

There was a big argument about whether we should move to a new house. (NOT ... about if we should move ... )

I haven't settled the question of whether I'll go back home.

3 infinitives

Whether, but not if, is used before to-infinitives.

They can't decide whether to get married now or wait. (NOT They can't decide if to get married ... )

4 subject, complement and adverbial clauses

When a question-word clause is a subject or complement, whether is normally preferred.

Whether we can stay with my mother is another matter. (subject)

The question is whether the man can be trusted. (complement)

The question is if ... is also possible, but less common.

The question is if the man can be trusted.

5 not used in echo questions

If and whether are not normally used in 'echo questions' (see 483).

Are you happy? ~ Am I happy? No! (NOT ... If/Whether I'm happy? ... )

622 which, what and who: question words

1 which and what: the difference

Which and what are often both possible, with little difference of meaning.

Which/What is the hottest city in the world?

Which/What train did you come on?

Which/What people have influenced you most in your life?

We prefer which when we have a limited number of choices in mind.

We've got white or brown bread. Which will you have? (More natural than ... What will you have?)

Which size do you want - small, medium or large?

When we are not thinking of a limited number of choices, what is preferred.

What language do they speak in Greenland? (More natural than Which language ... )

What's your phone number? (NOT Which is your phone number?)

2 determiners: which and what

Before nouns, which and what can be used to ask questions about both things and people.

Which teacher do you like best?

Which colour do you want - green, red, yellow or brown?

What writers do you like?   What colour are your baby's eyes?

3 which of

Before another determiner (e.g. the, my, these) or a pronoun, we use which of. Who and what are not normally used with of like this in modern English.

Which of your teachers do you like best? (NOT Who/What of your teachers ... )

Which of us is going to do the washing up? (NOT Who of us ... ?)

Which of these coats is yours? (NOT What of these ... ?)

4 without nouns: who for people

When these words are not followed by nouns or pronouns, we generally use who, not which, for people.

Who won - Smith or Fitzgibbon? (NOT Which won ... ?)

Who are you going out with - Lesley or Maria?

However, which can be used in questions about people's identity, and what can be used to ask about people's jobs and functions.

Which is your husband? ~ The one in jeans.

So Janet's the Managing Director. What's Peter?

For the difference between who and whom, see 623.

For relative who and which (e.g. the man who ... ), see 494. For relative what (e.g. what I need is ... ), see 497.

For singular and plural verbs after who and what, see 532.3.

623 who and whom

Whom is unusual in informal modern English.

1 questions: Who did they arrest?

We normally use who as an object in questions.

Who did they arrest?

Prepositions usually come at the end of who-questions (see 452).

Who did she go with?

In a very formal style, whom is sometimes used.

Whom did they arrest? (formal)

Prepositions normally come before whom.

With whom did she go? (very formal)

2 relative clauses: the man (who) we met

In identifying relative clauses, (see 495), whom is unusual in an informal style. Either we leave out the object pronoun, or we use that or who (see 494-495 for details).

There's the man (that)/(who) we met in the pub last night.

In a formal style whom is more common.

She married a man whom she met at a conference.

In non-identifying relative clauses (see 495), we usually use whom as an object when necessary (but these clauses are uncommon in informal English).

This is John Perkins, whom you met at the sales conference.

I have a number of American relatives, most of whom live in Texas.

3 who(m) he thought etc

In a sentence like He was flying to find an old school friend, who(m) he thought was living in New Zealand, people are often unsure whether whom is possible (because it seems to be the object of the first following verb) or whether they should use who (because it is the subject of the second verb). Who is considered more correct, but whom is sometimes used. Another example:

There is a child in this class who(m) I believe is a musical genius.

In cases with a following infinitive, usage is mixed, but whom is considered more correct.

There is a child in the class who(m) I believe to be a musical genius.

624 who ever, what ever etc

These expressions show surprise or difficulty in understanding something.

Who ever is that strange girl with Roger?

What ever are you doing?

How ever did you manage to start the car? I couldn't.

When ever will I have time to write some letters?

Why ever did I marry you?

The expressions can also be written as single words: whoever, whatever etc.

Note that whose and which are not used with ever in this way.

In an informal style, on earth, the hell (AmE also in hell) or the fuck (taboo - see 575) can be used instead of ever.

Who on earth is that strange girl?   Why the hell did I marry you?

What the fuck is she talking about?

For the conjunctions whoever, whatever, etc, see 625.

625 whoever, whatever etc

1 meaning and use

Whoever means 'it doesn't matter who', 'any person who', or 'the unknown person who'. Whatever, whichever, however, whenever and wherever have similar 'open' meanings.

A word of this kind has a double function, like a relative pronoun or adverb (see 498.1). It acts as a subject, object or adverb in its own clause, but it also acts as a conjunction, joining its clause to the rest of the sentence. Examples:

Whoever phoned just now was very polite.

I'm not opening the door, whoever you are.

Send it to whoever pays the bills.

Whatever you do, I'll always love you.

Whatever is in that box is making a very funny noise.

Keep calm, whatever happens.

Spend the money on whatever you like.

Whichever of them you marry, you'll have problems.

We're free all next week. You'll be welcome whichever day you come.

However much he eats, he never gets fat.

People always want more, however rich they are.

However you travel, it'll take you at least three days.

Whenever I go to London I try to see Vicky.

You can come whenever you like.

Wherever you go, you'll find Coca-Cola.

2 whoever, whichever and whatever: subjects and objects

Whoever, whichever and whatever can be the subjects or objects of the verbs in their clauses. (Note that whomever is not used in modern English.)

Whoever directed this film, it's no good. (subject of directed)

Whoever you marry, make sure he can cook. (object of many)

Whatever you say, I don't think he's the right man. (object of say)

Whichever and whatever can also go with nouns as determiners.

Whichever room you use, make sure you clean it up afterwards.

Whatever problems you have, you can always come to me for help.

If you change your mind for whatever reason, just let me know.

3 clauses as subjects or objects

A clause with whoever, whichever and whatever can be the subject or object of the verb in the other clause.

Whoever told you that was lying. (subject of was lying)

I'll marry whoever I like. (object of marry)

Whichever climber gets to the top first will get a £5,000 prize. (subject of will get)

I'll take whichever tent you're not using. (object of take)

Whatever you want is fine with me. (subject of is)

Prisoners have to eat whatever they're given. (object of eat)

4 whenever = 'every time that'

Whenever can suggest repetition, in the sense of 'every time that'.

Whenever I see you I feel nervous.

I stay with Monica whenever I go to London.

5 whoever etc ... may

May can be used to suggest ignorance or uncertainty.

He's written a book on the philosopher Matilda Vidmi, whoever she may be.

She's just written to me from Llandyfrdwy, wherever that may be.

6 leaving out the verb: whatever his problems

In a clause like whatever his problems are, where whatever is the complement of the verb be, it is possible to leave out the verb.

Whatever his problems, he has no right to behave like that.

A serious illness, whatever its nature, is almost always painful.

After however + adjective, we can leave out a pronoun + be.

A grammar rule, however true (it is), is useless unless it can be understood.

7 informal uses: short answers

In an informal style, these conjunctions are sometimes used as short answers.

When shall we start? ~ Whenever. (= Whenever you like.)

Potatoes or rice? ~ Whichever. (= I don't mind.)

Whatever is often used to mean 'I don't care' or 'I'm not interested'. This can sound rude.

What would you like to do? We could go and see a film, or go swimming. ~ Whatever.

Or whatever can mean 'or anything else'.

Would you like some orange juice or a beer or whatever?

If you play football or tennis or whatever, it does take up a lot of lime.

8 whatever meaning 'at all'

After any and no, whatever can be used to mean 'at all'.

Don't you have any regrets whatever?

I can see no point whatever in buying it.

In a formal style, whatsoever is sometimes used as an emphatic form of whatever in this structure.

For other uses of whatever and however, see a good dictionary.

For who ever, what ever etc, see 624.

For no matter who/what/etc, see 378.

626 whose: question word

1 with a noun or alone

The question word whose can be used with a noun as a determiner like my, your etc.

Whose car is that outside?

Whose garden do you think looks the nicest?

Whose can also be used alone, like mine, yours etc.

Whose is that car outside?   Whose is this? ~ Mine.

2 prepositions

Prepositions can normally come either before whose (more formal) or at the end of the clause (less formal). See 452 for details.

For whose benefit were all these changes made?

Whose side are you on?

In short questions with no verb, prepositions can only come before whose.

I'm going to buy a car. ~ With whose money? (NOT Whose money with?)

For the relative pronoun whose, see 496. For whose and who's, see 627.

627 whose and who's

Whose is a possessive word meaning 'of whom/which', used in questions and relative clauses. Who's is the contraction of who is or who has. Compare:

- Whose is that coat? (NOT Who's is that coat?)

It was a decision whose importance was not realised at the time. (NOT ... who's importance ... )

- Do you know anybody who's going to France in the next few days? (NOT ... anybody whose going ... )

I've got a cousin who's never been to London. (NOT ... whose never been ... )

There is a similar confusion between its and it's: see 305.

628 why and why not

1 replies

We generally use Why not?, not Why?, in short replies to negative statements. Compare:

They've decided to move to Devon. ~ Why?

I can't manage tomorrow evening. ~ Why not? (More natural than Why?)

Why not? can also be used to agree to a suggestion.

Let's eat out this evening. ~ Yes, why not?

2 Why should ... ?

A structure with why followed by should can suggest surprise.

I wonder why she should want to go out with me.

The structure can also suggest anger or refusal to do something.

I don't see why we should have to pay for your mistake.

Give me a cigarette. ~ Why should I?

For a similar structure with how, see 482.2.

3 infinitive structures

Why can be followed by an infinitive without to. This structure can suggest that an action is unnecessary or pointless.

Why argue with him? He'll never change his mind. (NOT Why arguing ... ? OR Why to argue ... ?)

Why pay more at other shops? We have the best value.

Why not + infinitive without to is used to make suggestions.

Sandy's in a bad mood. ~ Why not give her some flowers?

Why don't ... ? can be used in the same way.

Why don't you give her some flowers?

Why don't we go and see Julie?

629 will: various uses

1 forms

Will is a modal auxiliary verb (see 353-354). It has no -s in the third person singular; questions and negatives are made without do; after will, we use an infinitive without to.

Will the train be on time?

Contractions are 'll, won't.

Do you think it'll rain?   It won't rain.

Would is used as a past or less definite form of will for some of its meanings; for details, see 633.

2 future auxiliary

We can use will as an auxiliary verb when we talk about the future. For details, see 212.

I will be happy when this is finished.

This time tomorrow I'll be sitting in the sun.

He will have finished the whole job by this evening.

3 certainty

Will can express certainty or confidence about present or future situations.

As I'm sure you will understand, we cannot wait any longer for our order.

Don't phone them now - they'll be having dinner.

There's somebody coming up the stairs. ~ That'll be Mary.

Tomorrow will be cloudy, with some rain.

Will have + past participle refers to the past.

Dear Sir, You will recently have received a form ...

We can't go and see them now - they'll have gone to bed.

4 willingness and decisions

Will can express the speaker's willingness, or announce a decision.

Can somebody help me?~ I will.

There's the doorbell. ~ I'll go.

Will can express a firm intention, a promise or a threat.

I really will stop smoking.

I'll definitely pay you back next week.

I'll kill her for this.

We can use will not or won't to talk about unwillingness or refusal.

She won't open the door.

Give me a kiss. ~ No, I won't.

The car won't start.

Would not can refer to past refusal.

She wouldn't open the door.   The car wouldn't start this morning.

For details of these uses, see 217.

5 requests, orders and offers

We use will you to tell people what to do.

Will you send me the bill, please?

Come this way, will you?   Will you be quiet!

Would you is 'softer', more polite.

Would you send me the bill, please?

Come this way, would you?

Will you ... ? can also be used to ask about people's wishes.

Will you have some more potatoes?   What will you drink?

Won't you ... ? expresses a pressing offer.

Won't you have some more wine?

Will can be used in affirmative structures to give impersonal, military-type orders.

All staff will submit weekly progress reports.

6 distancing: I'll have to ask you ...

Instructions and orders can be made less direct by 'distancing' (see 436) - for example by using will to displace them into the future.

I'm afraid you'll need to fill in this form.

I'll have to ask you to wait a minute.

And will is sometimes used to say how much money is owed.

That will be £1.65, please.

7 typical behaviour

We can use will to talk about typical behaviour.

She'll sit talking to herself for hours.

When you look at clouds they will often remind you of animals.

If something breaks down and you kick it, it will often start working again.

Sulphuric acid will dissolve most metals.

Stressed will can be used to criticise people's typical behaviour.

She WILL fall in love with the wrong people.

Well, if you WILL keep telling people what you think of them ...

Would is used in a similar way to refer to the past. For details, see 633.7.

8 will and want

Will and want can both be used to talk about wishes, but they are rather different. Will is used mostly in 'interpersonal' ways, to express wishes that affect other people through orders, requests, offers, promises etc. Want simply refers to people's wishes - nothing more. Will is to do with actions, want is to do with thoughts. Compare:

- Will you open the window? (an order)

Do you want to open the window? (a question about somebody's wishes)

- She won't tell anybody. (= She refuses to ... )

She doesn't want to tell anybody. (= She prefers not to ... )

Note that will cannot be used with a direct object.

Do you want / Would you like an aspirin? (NOT Will you an aspirin?)

For a comparison between will and going to, see 216, 218.

630 wish

1 wish + infinitive

We can use wish + infinitive to mean want. Wish is very formal in this sense. Note that progressive forms are not used.

I wish to see the manager, please. (NOT I'm wishing to see ... )

If you wish to reserve a table, please telephone after five o'clock.

An object + infinitive structure is also possible.

We do not wish our names to appear in the report.

Wish + direct object is not normal without a following infinitive.

I want / would like an appointment with the manager. (NOT I wish an appointment with the manager.)

2 I wish you ...

Wish is used with two objects in some fixed expressions of good wishes.

I wish you a Merry Christmas.

We all wish you a speedy recovery.

Here's wishing you all the best in your new job.

3 wish + that-clause: meaning

We can also use wish with a that-clause (that can be dropped in an informal style). In this case, wish does not mean 'want' - it expresses regret that things are not different, and refers to situations that are unreal, impossible or unlikely. Tenses are similar to those used with if (see below).

I wish (that) I was better looking.

Don't you wish (that) you could fly?

We all wish (that) the snow would stay forever.

Wish + that-clause is not generally used for wishes about things that seem possible in the future. We often use hope in this sense (see 250),

I hope you pass your exams. (NOT I wish you would pass your exams.)

I hope you feel better tomorrow. (NOT I wish you felt better tomorrow.)

4 wish + that-clause: tenses

In a that-clause after wish, we generally use the same tenses as we would use, for instance, after 'It would be nice if .. .' (see 258). Past tenses are used with a present or future meaning.

I wish I spoke French. (= It would be nice if I spoke French.)

I wish I had a yacht.   I wish tomorrow was Sunday.

All the staff wish you weren't leaving so soon.

Do you ever wish you lived somewhere else?

Were can be used instead of was in this structure, especially in a formal style.

I wish that I were better looking.

Past perfect tenses are used for wishes about the past.

I wish you hadn't said that. (= It would be nice if you hadn't said that.)

Now she wishes she had gone to university.

In informal speech, sentences like I wish you'd have seen it sometimes occur.

For similar structures with if, see 262.

5 wish ... would

Would is very common in that-clauses after wish (much more common than it is in if-clauses). Sentences with wish ... would express regret or annoyance that something will not happen.

Everybody wishes you would go home. (= Why won't you go home?)

I wish you would stop smoking. (= Why won't you stop smoking?)

I wish the postman would come soon. (But it looks as if he won't.)

I wish it would stop raining. (= It will keep on raining!)

Don't you wish that this moment would last for ever?

Sentences with wish ... wouldn't refer to things that do or will happen.

I wish you wouldn't keep making that stupid noise. (= You will keep making ... )

Wish ... would(n't) can be like an order or a critical request. Compare:

- I wish you wouldn't drive so fast. (Similar to Please don't drive so fast.)

I wish you didn't drive so fast. (More like I'm sorry you drive so fast.)

- I wish you wouldn't work on Sundays. (= Why don't you stop?)

I wish you didn't work on Sundays. (= It's a pity.)

For similar structures with if only, see 265.

For other cases where past tenses have present or future meanings, see 426.

631 with

1 trembling with rage, blue with cold etc

With is used in a number of expressions which say how people are showing their emotions and sensations.

My father was trembling with rage.

Annie was jumping up and down with excitement.

When I found her she was blue with cold.

white with fear/rage    green with envy

red with anger/embarrassment    shivering with cold

2 angry with etc

With is also used after a number of adjectives which say how people are feeling towards others.

I'm cross with you.     furious with     upset with

angry with     pleased with

After words which say how people act towards others (like kind, nice, polite, rude, good), we generally use to, not with.

She was very nice to me. (NOT ... nice with me.)

3 with meaning 'against'

After fight, struggle, quarrel, argue, play and words with similar meanings, with can be used with the same meaning as against.

Don't fight with him - he's bigger than you are.

Will you play chess with me?

4 accompanying circumstances and reasons

With can introduce accompanying circumstances or reasons (rather like and there is/was or because there is/was).

The runners started the race with a light following wind.

With all this work to do, I won't have time to go out.

With friends like you, who needs enemies?

Without can be used in similar ways.

Without Sue and Jake, we're going to have trouble finishing the repairs.

5 possession

With is very often used, like have, to indicate possession and similar ideas.

There are so many people around with no homes. (= ... who have no homes.)

They've bought a house with a big garden.

6 clothing, voices, transport etc

Note that in is often used instead of with to refer to articles of clothing.

Who's the man in the funny hat?

Could you go and give this paper to the woman in glasses?

We say in a ... voice, NOT with a ... voice.

Why are you talking in such a loud voice?

Note also: by car/train etc (NOT with the car etc), and write in pencil/ink.

For the difference between by and with, see 119.

632 worth

1 worth a lot, etc

Worth can be followed by an expression describing the value of something.

That piano must be worth a lot.

I don't think their pizzas are worth the money.

Shall I talk to Rob?~ It's not worth the trouble.

In questions about value, either what or how much can be used.

What / How much is that painting worth?

2 a million dollars' worth of ...

A possessive can be used before worth in expressions with numbers.

They've ordered a million dollars' worth of computer software.

3 It's worth talking to Joe; Joe's worth talking to

To talk about the value of an activity, we can use an -ing form with worth. The -ing clause cannot be the subject; we often use preparatory it.

It's worth talking to Joe. (NOT Talking to Joe is worth.)

It isn't worth repairing the car.

Is it worth visiting Leicester?

We can also use a structure in which the object of the -ing form (Joe, the car, Leicester) is made the subject of the sentence.

Joe's worth talking to.

The car isn't worth repairing. (NOT The car isn't worth repairing it. OR The car isn't worth to be repaired.)

Is Leicester worth visiting?

For more about structures in which the object of a verb is the subject of the sentence (e.g. She's easy to amuse), see 284.4.

4 It's worth it

We often use It's (not) worth it to say whether something is worth doing.

If you pay a bit more you get a room to yourself. I think it's worth it.

Shall we go and see the castle? ~ No, it's not worth it.

5 worthwhile

Worthwhile (or worth while) is sometimes used instead of worth, particularly to express the idea 'worth spending time'.

Is it worthwhile visiting Leicester?

Infinitives are also possible after worthwhile.

We thought it might be worthwhile to compare the two years' accounts.

Note also the structure worth somebody's while.

Would you like to do some gardening for me? I'll make it worth your while. (= ... I'll pay you enough.)

6 well worth

Worth can be modified by well.

Leicester's well worth visiting. (NOT ... very worth ... )

633 would: various uses

1 forms

Would, the past form of will, is a modal auxiliary verb (see 353-354).

Questions and negatives are made without do; after would, we use an infinitive without to.

Would your daughter like to play with my little girl?

Contractions are 'd, wouldn't.

I'd like some advice, please.

I wish she wouldn't take things so seriously.

2 would and will

Would is used as a softer, less definite form of will (see 629), or in some cases as the past of will.

3 indirect speech

In indirect speech, would is used after past reporting verbs where will was used in direct speech. For details, see 275.

DIRECT SPEECH: Tomorrow will be fine.

INDIRECT SPEECH: The forecast said the next day would be fine.

Would itself does not usually change in indirect speech (see 278).

DIRECT SPEECH: Would you like some help?

INDIRECT SPEECH: She asked if I would like some help.

4 future in the past

Would is also used to express the idea of 'future in the past' - to talk about a past action which had not yet happened at the time we are talking about. For details, see 221.

In Berlin, he first met the woman whom he would one day marry.

There was a chance that my letter would arrive in time.

5 interpersonal uses

Would is used in polite requests and offers as a softer form of will.

Would you open the window, please?

If you would come this way ...

Would you mind standing up for a moment?

Would you like tea, or would you prefer coffee?

6 past willingness and refusals

Would can refer to past willingness of a general kind, but not to willingness to do something on a particular past occasion. Compare:

She would hoover, dust and iron, but she didn't like doing windows.

She agreed to come and see me. (NOT She would come and see me.)

But would not can be used to refer to a refusal on a particular past occasion.

I asked him very politely, but he wouldn't tell me.

The car wouldn't start again this morning.

For present refusals with will not / won't, see 629.4.

7 typical behaviour

Would is used as the past of will (see 629.7) to talk about typical behaviour in the past.

When she was old, she would sit in the corner talking to herself for hours.

Sometimes he would bring me little presents without saying why.

On Sundays when I was a child we would all get up early and go fishing.

Sentences with stressed would can be used to criticise people's behaviour.

He was a nice boy, but he WOULD talk about himself all the time.

Stressed would can also be used to criticise a single past action - the meaning is 'that's typical of you'.

You WOULD tell Mary about the party - I didn't want to invite her.

8 would and used to

Used to (see 604) can refer to repeated actions and events in the past, in the same way as would.

When she was old, she used to sit in the corner talking to herself for hours.

Sometimes he used to bring me little presents without saying why.

But only used to can refer to past states. Compare:

When we were children we would / used to go skating every winter.

I used to have an old Rolls-Royce. (BUT NOT I would have an old Rolls Royce.)

And we use used to, not would, to talk about regular and important habitual behaviour.

Robert used to play a lot of football. (NOT Robert would play ... )

I used to smoke. (NOT I would smoke.)

9 conditional auxiliary: I would ... if

Would (first person also I/we should - see 258) is often used as an auxiliary with verbs that refer to unreal or uncertain situations - for example in sentences with if (Compare the use of will/shall to refer to more definite situations.)

I would/should tell you if I knew.

It would have been nice if he'd thanked you.

We would/should like to talk to you for a minute.

For would after wish, see 630.5. For would after if only, see 265.

634 yes and no

1 answers to negatives

In English, yes is used with affirmative sentences and no with negative sentences. In answers to negative questions and statements, yes and no are chosen according to the form of the answer, not in order to show agreement or disagreement with the speaker.

Aren't you going out? ~ No, I'm not. (NOT Yes, I'm not.)

I have no money. ~ No, I haven't either. (NOT Yes, I haven't too.)

Haven't you got a raincoat? ~ Yes, I have. (NOT No, I have.)

2 contradicting

Some languages have a special word for contradicting negative statements or suggestions (e.g. French si or German doch). English does not have a word like this. We often use a short answer structure (see 517).

The phone isn't working. ~ (Yes,) it is. (NOT The phone isn't working. ~ Yes.)

Affirmative sentences are contradicted with negative short answers.

It's raining. ~ (No,) it isn't.

For more about negative questions, see 368.

For yes and no in answers to Do/Would you mind ... ?, see 351.

Index

a/an 61-63, 65-68, 70; a and one in numbers 389.11; a with half 231.4; generalisations (e.g. a child needs ... ) 68.2; position with as/how/so/too + adjective 14; with quite and rather 489-490; the difference between a and an 65.7; 70 miles an hour etc 389.20; weak and strong form 616.3; with uncountable nouns 149.4; see also articles

a- (prefix) 445.1

a bit 107; softening expression 437.1; with comparatives 140.1

a couple of ... + plural verb 526.2

a few, few and (a) little 329; with of 329.2

a great deal 333.4

a group of ... + plural verb 526.2

a large amount/number 333.4

a little, little and (a) few 329; with of 329.2; a little with comparatives 140.1

a long time and long 330

a long way and far 200

a lot, lots 333.2; with comparatives 140; a lot of ... + plural verb 526.2

a number of ... + plural verb 526.2

abbreviated styles 1

abbreviations 2

able be able to 3

-able (suffix) 445.4

about and (a)round 60; and on 4

about to 5

above and over 6

accents 308.3

accept and agree 7

accommodation uncountable 148.3

according to 8

accuse preposition 449

accused the accused 17.3

accustomed + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

ache simple or progressive 466.7

acre 389.18

acronyms 2.3

across, over and through 10

act and play 432.2

active verb forms 10

actor and actress 222.4

actual(ly) 11, 157.15,16,20

AD and BC 152.3

addition in addition 157.11

addresses at, in and on 81.6; in letters 146.1-4; in emails 147.1,3

adjectives 12-19
+for ... to... 291.3,4
+ infinitive 284
+ -ing form 297
adjectives and adverbs of manner (happy and happily etc) 26
adjectives or adverbs: confusing cases 27
after link verbs (be, seem, look etc) 328.2
after sit, stand, lie, fall etc 328.5
before personal pronouns (e.g. Poor you!) 429.7
comparison 137, 139-141
complementation: what can follow an adjective? 19
leaving out words after adjectives 180.1
order before nouns 15
position 12; after as, how, so, too 14; after measurement nouns 13.4; after nouns and pronouns 13; after object 12.4; with something, everything etc 13.6
use of commas 476.5
with and 16
without nouns 17
word order with complements (e.g. skilled in design) 13.5

admired much admired 410.4

admit ... ing 296.1

adopted position and meaning 410.3

advanced active past participle 409.3,4

adverb particles (e.g. back, off, out) 20; in two-part verbs 599

adverbs position 21-25; adverbs of manner and adjectives (happily and happy etc) 26; adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases 27; comparison 138; ending in -ly: spelling 557; often etc with present perfect 455.6; position with ought to 403.6; with used to 604.5; yesterday etc not used with present perfect 456.2

advertisements words left out 1.1

advice uncountable 148.3; + subjunctive 567.2

advise + object + infinitive 277.1, 283;

+ -ing form or infinitive 299.4

afford to ... 282

afloat position 12.3

afraid position 12.3; afraid so/not 539; be afraid 92.1; be afraid and fear 28; with -ing form or infinitive 299.13; I'm afraid meaning 'I'm sorry' 28.2, 157.16

after (adverb) shortly after etc 29.1; and afterwards 29.2

after (conjunction) 30; after ... ing 30.4,411.6; + present perfect 30.3; + present with future meaning 30.2, 580.2; + past or past perfect 424.1

after all 31, 157.19; and finally 31.2

afterward(s) 614.3; and after 29.2

again and back 87

age 32; use of be 92.2

age expressions with no preposition 451.8; preposition 32; 'unmarked' use 350

-age (suffix) 445.2

aged pronunciation 18

agent in passive structures 413

ages in/for ages 312.9

ago 33; and before 33.4; and for 33.3; not used with present perfect 456.2; tenses 33.2; word order 33.1

agree structures 298.2; + infinitive 277.1, 282; agree and accept 7; I agree (simple present) 466.4; it was agreed to ... 417.2; non-progressive verb 471.2; preposition 449

ain't 143.4 Note 5

aircraft singular and plural the same 524.3

-al (suffix) 445.2,4

alight position 12.3

alike 34; position 12.3

alive position 12.3

all 35-40
all and all of 36.1; and both 35.1; and every 39; and whole 40
all, everybody and everything 38
all I want is ... etc 130.5
all that ... (relative structure) 494.5 expressions with no preposition 451.2
following article dropped 70.5

all ... but 116.1

all day/week etc 36.5; all day and every day etc 39.4

all else 183.1

all right (showing change of subject) 157.8; and alright 41

all the better, all the more important etc 141.2

all the same 157.5

all together and altogether 50

allow + object + infinitive 283; + -ing form or infinitive 299.4; allow, permit and let 42; I was allowed to 418.1

almost position 24.4; with superlatives 140.3; almost, nearly and practically 43

alone position 12.3; alone, lonely, lonesome and lone 44

along and through 45

aloud and loudly 334

already tenses 566.7; with present perfect 455.5; yet, still and already 566

also position 24.6, 46.1; and even 189.3; discourse marker 157.11; not only ... but also 383; too, also and as well 46-47

alternately and alternatively 48

although, though, but and however 49; although and but not used together 511.1; although and in spite of 272

altogether and all together 50

always position 22.3, 24.2; in imperatives 268.7; and ever 191.5; with progressive 472; with simple past 457.4

am weak and strong form 616.3

a m (= in the morning) 579.3

American used for United States citizens and affairs 364 Note d

American-British differences 51; grammar 51.1; vocabulary 51.2; spelling 51.3; pronunciation 51.4; adjective forms used as adverbs 27.4; adverb position 24.11; can't and mustn't 359.2; dates 152; have to and must 361.1; irregular verbs 304.3; letters 146.12; names of meals 347.2; noun + noun (e.g. a doll house) 386.6; use of subjunctive 567.2

among and between 105.2; among meaning 'one of' 105.4

amount with uncountables 333.4; following article dropped 70.7

amused very/much amused 410.4

analysis plural 524.4

-ance, -ancy (suffixes) 445.2

and 52; + infinitive without to 281.4; after try, wait, go etc 53; both ... and 111; ellipsis (leaving out words) after and 178; in numbers 389.10; weak and strong form 616.3; with adjectives 16

Anglo- 445.1

angry preposition 449

annoyed by/with 410.5

another 54; + plural expression 532.6; another one 395.5; another few weeks etc 54.2

another thing is (discourse marker) 157.11

ante- (prefix) 445.1

anti- (prefix) 445.1

antique shop and antiques shop 312.9

anxious preposition 449; anxious to 284.1; anxious for ... to 291.3; with should 521.1

any 55
after superlatives 139.8
and any of 55.7; and every 56; and not any 55.3; and some 547
any ... at all 55.6
any ... but (= except) 116.1
any different/good/use 57
any more and anymore 379
any/some or no article 67
any the worse/wiser etc 141.2
expressions with no preposition 451.2
hardly any 43.3
meaning 'it doesn't matter which' etc 55.5
non-affirmative word 381
not any, no and none 376
with comparatives (any older etc) 57

anybody and anyone 548; no difference 548.1; anyone and any one 548.7; non-affirmative words 381; position with adjectives 13.6; with else 183.1

anyhow (discourse marker) 157.7

anyone see anybody

anything 548; anything else 183.1; anything for ... to 291.6; anything that 494.5; position with adjectives 13.6

anyway (discourse marker) 157.7

anywhere 548; position with adjectives 13.6; anywhere else 183.1

apart from (discourse marker) 157.12; apart from, besides and except 102

apologies 545.7

apologise preposition 449

apostrophe 479; in plurals of abbreviations 2.4

apparently (discourse marker) 157.16

appear link verb 58.1; and seem 58.2; in negative sentences 369.4; meaning 'come into sight' 58.3; appear to 282; non-progressive verb 471.2; it appears so 536.1; structure with there 587.5

appendix plural 524.4

appreciate ... ing 296.1; with preparatory it (e.g. I would appreciate it if you ... ) 447.3

approach no following preposition 451.1

Arab, Arabic and Arabian 364 Note e

arch- (prefix) 445.1

are weak and strong form 616.3

areas 389.19

aren't I? 143.4 Note 2, 488.1

arise and rise 59

arms plural with no singular 524.7

around, round and about 60

arrange to 282; arrange for ... to 291.7

arrive at/in 81.5

arrived active past participle 409.4

arse (taboo word / swearword) 575

arsehole (taboo word / swearword) 575

art older English form of are 392

articles (a/an and the) 61-70
basic information 62-63 a and an: the difference 65.7
a and one in numbers 389.11
a with half 231.4
days, months and seasons 70.9
dropped after amount/ number of 70.7; after both and all 70.5; after kind of etc 70.6; in noun + noun compounds 70.4; after possessive's 70.3; in advertisements, instructions etc 1, 70.19; in double expressions 70.2
exclamations (What a ... !)70.13
illnesses 70.14
in bed etc 70.1
jobs and positions 70.12
man and woman 70.8
measurements (by the kilo etc) 70.16
musical instruments 70.10
newspapers and magazines 70.18
no article with plurals and uncountables 66
parts of the body 70.15
place names 70.17
radio, cinema, theatre and television 70.11
some/any or no article 67
special rules and exceptions 70
talking in general 68
the accused, the blind, the British etc 17
the instead of possessive (e.g. hit him on the arm) 441.5
the older ... , the happier etc 139.5
the with half 23 1.3
the with -ing forms (e.g. the opening of Parliament) 295.3
the with superlatives 141.6
70 miles an hour etc 389.20
see also a/an, the

as (reason) as, because, since and for 72

as (similarity, function) and like 326
+ infinitive without to 281.4
+ will or present tense with future meaning 580.2
after see, describe etc 607.2
as ... as 136
as ... ing 411.6
as agreed etc 177.11
as and than as subjects, objects and complements 581
as and that not used together 511.1
as, like and how 252.3
as me, as I do etc 136.4, 429.2
as, than and that 139.1
cold as it was etc 71
ellipsis (leaving out words) after as 177.7
not used after seem 507.5
replacing subjects, objects and complements (e.g. as happened yesterday, as follows, as was agreed, as you know) 326.5, 581
verb before subject after as 302.5
weak and strong form 616.3
word order in as good a voice etc 14

as (time) as, when and while 73

as a matter of fact 157.20

as a result 157.14

as ever 191.2

as far as 602.3; as far as ... is concerned 157.1

as for 157.1

as I was saying 157.9

as if 74; feel as if 202.3; it looks as if ... 446.5

as it were 567.4

as long as 75; meaning 'on condition that' 263

as much/many 357.6; as much as (emphatic use) 136.6

as regards 157.1

as soon as + present with future meaning 580.2; + simple past or past perfect 424.1

as such 76

as though 74; feel as though 202.3; it looks as though 446.5

as usual 77

as well position 46.1; may/might as well 343; as well, also and too 46-47

as well as 78; + singular verb 532.2; as well as that 157.11

ask 79; + object + infinitive 277.1, 283; + subjunctive 567.2; ask to 282; ask for ... to 291.7; passive structure (I was asked to) 418.1; with one and two objects 610.7

asleep position 12.3; asleep and sleeping 86

ass (taboo word / swearword) 575

asshole (taboo word / swearword) 575

astonish non-progressive verb 471.2

at after verbs 80; at ... age 32; at and to 80; at night 70.1; at no time + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7; at, on and in (place) 81; (time) 82; at/on weekends 312.9; at Philip's, at the Smiths' etc 249.1; at school, university etc 70.1; weak and strong form 616.3

at all 83

at any rate (discourse marker) 157.7

at first and first 84

at last, finally, in the end and at the end 204

at least 318.6; discourse marker 157.7,16

at once 393

at which point 498.5

ate AmE pronunciation 304.3

-ate (suffix) 445.6

athletics singular, no plural 524.3

-ation (suffix) 445.2

attempt + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

Attorney General 13.1

attributive position of adjectives 12.1

authoress 222.4

auto- (prefix) 445.1

autumn with or without the 70.9

auxiliary verbs 85; dropping words after auxiliaries 181; stressed for emphasis 184.2

available position after noun (e.g. the tickets available) 13.2, 498.10

avoid ...ing 296.1

await 612

awake (adjective) position 12.3; and waking 86

awake (verb), wake and (a)waken 86

aware of not followed by that 453.1

back and again 87

backward(s) 614

bacterium plural 524.4

bad preposition 449; worse, worst 137.2

badly comparative and superlative 138

baggage uncountable 148.3

balls (taboo word / swearword) 575

bank + singular or plural verb/pronoun 526.1

barracks singular and plural the same 524.3

basis plural 524.4

bath and bathe 88

baths pronunciation 525.4

BBC + singular or plural verb/pronoun 526.1

BC and AD 152.3

be 89-92; and have 92; be born 108; be gone 229; contractions (he's, isn't etc) 143; do be, don't be 90,268.4; I am to ... etc 91; left out in advertisements, instructions etc 1; left out in news headlines 240; perfect auxiliary in older English 455.1; progressive forms (I am being etc) 89; subjunctive (I be, I were etc) 567.3; weak and strong form 616.3; with ages 32

be + infinitive (I am to etc) 91; was to have been etc 288.2; if ... was/ were to 261.2

be able 3

be committed + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

be going to 213

be supposed to 572

be sure and 53.1

be that as it may 567.4

be used to ... ing 605

bear (verb) 108.2; (can't) hear + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

beat and win 93

because 94; and because of 94.1; because and so not used together 511.1; because, as, since and for 72; just because ... , it doesn't mean 94.3

become, get, go, grow etc 128

bed expressions without article 70.1

been weak and strong form 616.3; meaning 'come' or 'gone' 95

before (adverb) 96; and ago 33.4; and ever 191.4; before, first and before that 96.3; with past perfect 97.3; with present perfect 455.5

before (conjunction and preposition) 97-98; + present with future meaning 580.2; before ... ing 411.6; before and in front of98; before and until 602.7

beg to 282; + object + infinitive 283

begin + -ing form or infinitive 299.10; begin and start 99; to begin with 157.10

believe non-progressive verb 471.2; + object + to be 607.3; believe so/not 539; in negative sentences 369; he is believed to be 418.2; preposition 449; so I believe 539.3

belong non-progressive verb 471.2; preposition 449

beloved pronunciation 18

below, under, underneath and beneath 100

bend active or passive meaning 609.2

beneath, below, under and underneath 100

beside and besides 101; besides (discourse marker) 157.11; besides, except and apart from 102

bet 103; + present with future meaning 103.2; with two objects 610.1

better 137.2; and rather 104.2; had better 230; meaning 'recovered' 104.1; quite better 489.3

between and among 105; between ... to 312.7; between you and I etc 312.6, 429.1

bi- (prefix) 445.1

bicycle by bicycle 70.1

big, large and great 106

billiards singular, no plural 524.3

billion 389.14; and billions 389.15

binoculars plural with no singular 524.7

bit 430.1; a bit 107; quite a bit 489.4

bitch (taboo word / swearword) 575

blast (taboo word / swearword) 575

blessed pronunciation 18

blind the blind 17.1

bloody position 12.2

blue with cold etc 449

boat by boat 70.1; on/in a boat 81.4

bollocks (taboo word / swearword) 575

bored and boring etc 409.2

born and borne 108

borrow and lend 109

both 110; and all 35.1; and both of 110.2; both ... and 111; following article dropped 70.5

bread uncountable 148.3

break active or passive meaning 609.2

bride and bridegroom 222.4

briefly 157.21

bring and take 112; bring with two objects 610.1

bring up and educate 113

Brit 364 Note b

Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England 114

British the British 17.2

British and American English 51; see also American-British differences

Briton 364 Note b

broad and wide 115

broadly speaking 157.12

buffalo plural 523.3

bugger (taboo word / swearword) 575

bunch 430.4

burst out crying/laughing 296.1

bus by bus 70.1; on a bus 81.4

but (co-ordinating conjunction) 510.2; but, although, though and however 49; but and although not used together 511.1; dropping words after but 178; may/might ... but 342; weak and strong form 616.3

but meaning 'except' 116; + infinitive without to 281.4; me, him etc after but 429.2; next but one, last but two etc 116.1

but meaning 'only' 116.4

buy with two objects 610.1

by and with (method, tools etc) 119; in passive 413; written/composed etc by 450; by or other prepositions after past participles 410.5; by the kilo etc 70.16

by (place) and near 118

by (time) 117; and until 602.6

by all/any/no means 349.2

by and large 157.12

by car, bus etc 70.1

by far with superlatives 140.3

by myself etc 493.6

by the time that 117.1

by the way 157.8

Bye and Bye-bye 545.2

cactus plural 524.4

calculations in speech 389.22-23

calf plural 524.1

call 120; passive (e.g. she was called stupid) 419; call back 87.5

camped active past participle 409.4

can and could 121-5
ability 122
can/could always 123.4
can/could and may/might 345
can have done in questions 359.4
can or will be able 123.1
can see, hear etc 125; can speak, play 123.3
can't and may/might not 339.4
can't and mustn't 359.2
can't have done 359.4
could and was able to etc 122.5, 123.2
could and was allowed to etc 124.3
could as a less definite form of can 122.6
could have done 122.7, 123.5, 259.2
could in indirect speech 275.3, 278.3
could meaning 'would be able to' 122.6, 258.6
could meaning 'would be allowed to' 124.4
could making questions etc less direct 436.4
interpersonal uses (permission, requests, offers, suggestions, criticisms etc) 124
weak and strong form 616.3

can't bear + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

can't help 126

can't seem to 507.4

can't stand ... ing 296.1

capital letters 556; after colons 474.4; national adjectives (Italian etc) 364; Northern etc 172

car by car 70.1

care to 282; take care (of), care (about) and care for 127

careful to 284.2

carry not followed by indirect object 610.6

case in some etc cases 157.12; in any case 157.11; in case 271

cattle plural with no singular 524.7

causative structures with get 224; with have 238; with make 335

cause + object + infinitive 283

cent 389.17

cent(i)- (prefix) 445.1

-centric (suffix) 445.4

centuries numbering 389.8

certain + -ing form or infinitive 299.15

certainly position 24.3; as discourse marker 157.5; certainly and surely 573.1

chairman and chairperson 222.5

chance uncountable use 149.2

change active or passive meaning 609.1; uncountable use 149.2

changes become, get, go, grow etc 128; present progressive 464.4, 466.2

changes in English 312

Cheers 545.2,12,19

chess uncountable 148.3

chewing gum uncountable 148.3

child plural 524.2

Chinese singular and plural the same 524.3

choir + singular or plural 526.1

choose to 282; she was chosen to be 418.1

Christ (taboo word / swearword) 575

Christmas prepositions 82.4

church expressions without article 70.1

cinema preposition 450; the cinema 70.11

city and town 129

class + singular or plural 526.1

classic and classical 254.3

classical names English versions 362.2

clause inside clause 515.1

clean adjective and adverb 27.2

cleft sentences with it 131; with what 130

clever preposition 449

close(d) and shut 132

cloth and clothes 133

clothes plural with no singular 524.7

club + singular or plural 526.1

co- (prefix) 445.1

cock (taboo word / swearword) 575

cold be cold 92.1

collapsed active past participle 409.3

collective nouns singular or plural 526.1

college expressions without article 70.1

collocations 255

colons 474; in news headlines 240.2

colour expressions with no preposition 451.8

colour use of be 92.2

combat(t)ing etc spelling 562.7

come and go 134; come ... ing 228.2; come and 53.2; come for a walk, swim etc 227; come from 134.5; come to (= 'arrive at') 134.5; come to realise etc 128.5

come true/right 128.5

comic and comical 254.3

command + object + infinitive 283

commando plural 523.3

commas 476; after subordinate clauses 510.4; in numbers 389.10; in relative clauses 495.2; with adjectives 15.6

commentaries tenses 465.2; words left out 1.3

committed + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

committee + singular or plural 526.1

common for ... to 291.4

comparatives and superlatives 135, 137-141
adjectives (formation) 137
adverbs (formation) 138
any/no older etc 57.1
ever after comparatives/superlatives 191.2
fatter and fatter, more and more slowly etc 139.4
more replacing -er 312.9
much, far etc with comparatives and superlatives 140
prepositions with superlatives (the happiest man in the world et c) 139.7
superlative + infinitive 284.3
superlative + relative clause with that 494.5
superlative with or without the 141.6
tenses after this is the best etc 591
the difference between comparatives and superlatives 139.2,3
the older ... , the happier ... etc 139.5
using comparatives and superlatives 139-141
word order with complement 13.5

comparison 135-141; as ... as 136; comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs 137-141; structures 135; see also comparatives and superlatives

compel + object + infinitive 283

complementation what can follow an adjective? 19; what can follow a noun? 384; what can follow a verb? 606

completely position 24.4

compound adjectives with participles (e.g quick-growing, home-made) 410.1

compound nouns plurals 524.6

concentrate not 'concentrate oneself' 493.9

concern non-progressive verb 471.2

concerned position and meaning 410.3

concerto plural 523.3

conclusion in conclusion 157.21

conditional structures see if

conditional verb forms see would

confused and confusing etc 409.2

congratulate and congratulations preposition 449

congratulations no singular 524.7, 545.4

conjunctions 510-11; prepositions before conjunctions (e.g. the question of whether ... ) 453

consent structures 298.2

consequently (discourse marker) 157.14

consider ... ing 296.1; consider + object + to be 607.3; he was considered a genius etc 419; it is considered to be etc 418.2

consist non-progressive verb 471.2

contain non-progressive verb 471.2

contemplate ... ing 296.1

contents plural with no singular 524.7

continual(ly) and continuous(ly) 142; continually with progressive form 472

continue + -ing form or infinitive 299.11

continuous see progressive

contractions 143

contrary and opposite 144.2; on the contrary 157.6; on the contrary and on the other hand 144.1

contrastive emphasis 184.1

control meaning 145

conversation countable or uncountable 148.6

co-ordinating conjunctions 510.2

corpus plural 524.4

correctness 309

correspondence (letters etc) 146-147

cost with two objects 610.1

costly adjective, not adverb 27.1

could see can

countable and uncountable nouns 148-149; a/an with uncountables 149.4; plural uncountables 149.5

counter- (prefix) 445.1

counting see numbers

country countable and uncountable uses 150; the country 69.4

couple a couple of ... + plural verb 526.2

course of course 390

court martial 13.1; plural 524.6

covered in 410.5

cowardly adjective, not adverb 27.1

crack active or passive meaning 609.2

craft singular and plural the same 524.3

crap (taboo word / swearword) 575

crash preposition 449

crew plural with no singular 524.7

crisis plural 524.4

criterion plural 524.4

crooked pronunciation 18

crossroads singular and plural the same 524.3

cubic metre etc 389.19

cunt (taboo word / swearword) 575

cursed pronunciation 18

customs plural with no singular 524.7

cyber- (prefix) 445.1

daily adjective and adverb 27.1

damn (taboo word / swearword) 575

'dangling' (misrelated) participles 411.4

dare 151; I dare say 151.3

dash (punctuation mark) 477

data singular or plural 524.3, 312.7

dates 152; in letters 146.2

day by day 70.1; the day we met etc 498.6

days of the week expressions with no preposition 451.3

de- (prefix) 445.1

dead adjective and adverb 27.2; dead, died and death 153; the dead 17.1

dead and deadly 27.2

deadly adjective, not adverb 27.1

deaf the deaf 17.1

deal a great deal 333.4

decide to 282; it was decided to 417.2

decimals 389.1-3

declarative questions (e.g. You're working late?) 481

deep position after measurement nouns 13.4

deer singular and plural the same 524.3

defining (relative clauses) see identifying

definitely position 24.3

delay ... ing 296.1

delighted for ... to 291.3

demonstratives (this, that, these, those) 589-590

deny non-progressive verb 471.2; deny ... ing 296.1; I deny 466.4

depend non-progressive verb 471.2; depend/dependent preposition 449

describe structure with as 607.2; with two objects 610.6

descriptive and prescriptive rules 309.4

deserve + -ing form with passive meaning 296.3; non-progressive verb 471.2

despite this/that 157.3

details preposition 449

determiners (the, my, some, either etc) 154; with -ing form (e.g. the opening of Parliament; my smoking) 295.3; dropping words after determiners 180.2

detest ...ing 296.1

developed active past participle 409.3

diagnosis plural 524.4

dialects and standard English 308, 309.2

dice singular and plural the same 524.3

dick (taboo word / swearword) 575

die preposition 449

died, dead and death 153

difference uncountable use 149.2; difference between 105.3

different from/to/than 155.2; and other 54.5; any/no different 155.1; word order with complement 13.5

difficult word order with complement 13.5; difficult to please etc 284.4

difficulty preposition 449; have difficulty in ... ing 149.2

dime 389.17

dinner, lunch and supper 347

direct adjective and adverb 27.2

direct and indirect objects 610

direct and indirect speech 274.1; see also indirect speech

direct speech reporting verbs and word order 156; commas and colons 474.6,476.9; quotation marks 478.1

dis- (prefix) 445.1

disagree non-progressive verb 471.2

disappointed preposition 449

discourse markers 157

discuss no following preposition 451.1

discussion preposition 449

dislike non-progressive verb 471.2; + (object -) -ing form 296.1,2

distributive plural (e.g. six people lost their lives) 530

dive AmE forms 304.3

divide prepositions 449; between/among 105.3

divorce and get divorced 337

do 158-161
auxiliary verb 159; in emphatic imperatives (e.g. Do sit down.) 268.2; in negatives 367-371; in questions 482; in question tags 487-8; in short answers 517
do and make 160.3
do ... ing 160
general-purpose verb 160
so do I etc 541
substitute verb 161
weak and strong form 616.3
with be in emphatic imperatives 268.4
with have 237, 239

do so/it/that 162

do you mind ... ? 351.1

doctor 363.2,3

does weak and strong form 616.3

dogged pronunciation 18

dollar 389.17

donate not followed by indirect object 610.6

don't, I'm, I've etc (contractions) 143

don't be in negative imperatives 268.4

don't mention it 545.19

double negatives 370; in dialects 309.2; in expressions of doubt 261.8, 370.7

doubling consonants (e.g. big → bigger) 562

doubt (noun) no doubt 377

doubt (verb) structures 163; non-progressive verb 471.2; if in doubt 261.6

down and up (down/up the road etc) 603

dozen and dozens 389.15

Dr 363.3

draughts singular, no plural 524.3

dream preposition 449

dress (noun) 164.1

dress (verb) 164.2,3; dress, not dress oneself 493.9; dress(ed) preposition 449

drinking common expressions 545.12

drive preposition 449

dropping words see ellipsis

drown and be drowned 165

drunken 304.3

due to and owing to 166

duke and duchess 222.4

during and for 167; and in 168

Dutch the Dutch 17.2

e- (prefix) 445.1

each 169; each of 169.2; and every 170; expressions with no preposition 451.2; followed by he/she or they 169.3; position 169.4

each other / one another 171; and -selves 171.4

eager for ... to 291.3

early adjective and adverb 27.1; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138; early, soon and quickly 550

earth who on earth etc 624

easily with superlatives 140.3

east and eastern etc 172; capital letters 172.3

Easter prepositions 82.4

easy adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138; easy for ... to 291.4; easy to please etc 284.4; word order with complement 13.5

echo plural 523.3

echo questions 483

eco- (prefix) 445.1

economic and economical 254.3

-ed (suffix) 445.4; -ed and -ing forms (participles) 408-411; pronunciation 421, 18

educate and bring up 113

-ee (suffix) 445.2

efficient and effective 173

e.g. (= for example) 157.13

either (adverb) position 24.6; either, also, as well and too in negative clauses 47; not ... either, neither and nor 374

either (determiner) 174; either of 174.2; and either one 395.5; meaning 'each' 174.5

either ... or 175

elder and eldest 176; position 12.2

elect she was elected President etc 419

electric and electrical 254.3

elf plural 524.1

ellipsis (leaving out words) 177-182
after adjectives 180.1
after and, but and or 178
after as and than 177.7
after auxiliary verbs 181
after conjunctions 177.11
after determiners 180.2
after if 261.6
after question words 177.8
at the beginning of a sentence 179
before question tags 488.8
comprehension problems 515.3,4
dropping if 261.4,5
dropping prepositions 451
dropping prepositions before that 453.1,2
dropping that 584
dropping the after all 36.5
dropping the after both 70.5
in advertisements, instructions etc 1
in headlines 240.1
in infinitives (e.g. I don't want to) 182
in noun phrases 180
in replies 177.1
object relative pronoun 495.4
subject relative pronoun 498.17

else 183; elsewhere 183.6

emails 147; words left out 1

embedding (clause inside clause) 515

emphasis 184; emotive and contrastive 184.1

emphatic imperatives 268.2

en- (prefix) 445.1

-en (suffix) 445.6

-ence, -ency (suffixes) 445.2

encourage + object + infinitive 283

end and finish (verbs) 185

end at/in the end 204; either end 174.5

endure ... ing 296.1

end-weight 512.4

England, Britain, the United Kingdom and the British Isles 114

England (football team) + plural 526.1

English the English 17.2, 364

English (the language) uncountable 149.4

enjoy 186; enjoy ... ing 296.1; Enjoy (yourself)! 545.9

enough 187; enough of 187.4; + for ... to 291.8; enough to after adjective 284.4

enter preposition 449; no following preposition 451.1

entitled structures 298.2

equipment uncountable 148.3

-er (suffix) 445.2

escape .. .ing 296.1

escaped active past participle 409.3

-ese (suffix) 445.3

Eskimo plural 523.3

especial(ly) and special(ly) 188

-ess (suffix) 445.2

essential + subjunctive 567.2; + for ... to 291.4

-ette (suffix) 445.2

Euro- (prefix) 445.1

even 189; and also 189.3; position 24.6; with comparatives 140.1

even if/though 189.4

even now 189.5

even so 189.5

eventual(ly) 190

ever 191; after superlatives 139.8; and always 191.5; and before 191.4; if ever 261.6; non-affirmative word 381; position 24.2; who ever etc 624; with present perfect 455.5; with simple past 457.4; ever after 191.5; ever before 191.4; ever since 191.5

ever so/such 192

every 193; and all 39; and any 56; and each 170; every one (of) 193.2,3; every ... but 116.1; every day and all day etc 39.4; expressions with no preposition 451.2; followed by he/she or they 193.5

every few days etc 193.6

every now and then 193.10

every other 193.9

every single 193.9

every so often 193.10

everybody and everyone 548.1; no difference 548.1; + singular verb 548.3; and all 38; followed by he/she or they 193.7; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 488.5; with else 183.1

everyday and every day 193.8

everyone 548; + singular verb 548.3; and all 38; and everybody 548.1; and every one 548.7; followed by he/she or they 193.7; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 488.5

everything 548; + singular verb 193.7; and all 38; everything that 494.5; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 488.5

everywhere 548; + singular verb 193.7; position with adjectives 13.6

ex- (prefix) 445.1

example of 449; for example 157.13

except structures 194; + infinitive without to 281.4; except for 194, 157.12; and without 194.6; except, besides and apart from 102; me, him etc after except 429.2

excited by/about 410.5; excited and exciting etc 409.2

exclamation mark 473

exclamations 195; articles (What a ... !) 70.13

excuse ... ing 296.1

Excuse me 545.6,7

expect (+ object) + infinitive 282-283; expect, hope, wait and look forward 196; in negative sentences 369.4; expect so/not 539

experience countable or uncountable 148.6; and experiment 197

explain structures 198; passive structures 415; preposition 449

extent to some extent etc 157.12

extra- (prefix) 445.1

face ... ing 296.1

facing, opposite and in front of 402

fact in fact, as a matter of fact (discourse markers) 157.20; the fact that 583.3

faded active past participle 409.3,4

fail to ... 282

fair adjective and adverb 27.2

fairly, quite, rather and pretty 199

fall ill / asleep/ in love 128.8

fallen active past participle 409.3

family + singular or plural 526.1

fancy ... ing 296.1

far (adjective) 200.4

far (adverb) and a long way 200

far before too 595.3; before comparatives and superlatives 140

farm on a farm 81.7

fart (taboo word / swearword) 575

farther and further 201

fast adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138

fear and be afraid 28

feel 202; + object + infinitive without to 281.2; + object + to be 607.3; can feel 125.1; feel as if/though 202.3; feel like 202.3,4; feel like ... ing 296.1; I feel (discourse marker) 157.16; it was felt that 417.1; link verb 202.1-3; ordinary verb: meanings and structures 202.5-7; present tenses 466.7; progressive and nonprogressive uses 471.3; there are felt to be 418.4; without -self 493.9

female and feminine 203

fetch, look for and look after 331.4

few, a few and (a) little 329; few of 329.2; the few ... that 494.5; quite a few 489.4

fewer and less 320.1; fewer of 320.2

fewest and least 318

fight preposition 449

fill in/out 312.9

filled with 410.5

finally (discourse marker) 157.10; and after all 31.2; finally, at last and in/at the end 204

find + object + ... ing 411.7; + object + to be 607.4

find and found 304.2

find out and know 313.5

fine adjective and adverb 27.2

finish ... ing 296.1; finish and end 185

finished be/have finished 205; meaning 'ready' 205; active past participle 409.4

finished-time words not normally used with present perfect 456.2,457.5

fireman 222.5

firm + singular or plural 526.1

first (adverb) and at first 84; and before 96.3

first and one, second and two etc 389.7; tenses after this is the first etc 591; the first etc to 284.3; word order with complement 13.5

first floor etc 389.9

first(ly), first of all (discourse markers) 157.10

fish singular and plural the same 524.3

fit (adjective) + infinitive 284.2

fit non-progressive verb 471.2; AmE forms 304.3; fit and suit 206; no passive 412.4

fixed expressions 255

flat adjective and adverb 27.2

flock 430.4

floors first floor etc 389.9

flow and fly 304.2

flu uncountable 148.7

fly and flow 304.2

focus(s)ing etc spelling 562.7

follow can follow 125.3

foot (measure) 389.18; six foot/feet etc 389.15

foot on foot 70.1; irregular plural 524.2

for ... to 291; after enough 291.8; after something, anybody etc 291.6; after too 291.8; after verbs 291.7; for there to be 291.10

for in news headlines 240.2

for purpose/ cause 207; for ... ing after nouns (e.g. a machine for cutting) 207.2,297.2; for, as, because and since 72

for (time), since, in and from 208; for and ago 33.3; and during 167; dropped in time expressions 451.7; with present perfect progressive 458.5; present with future meaning after for 208.1

for weak and strong form 616.3

for a long time and long 330

for example, for instance 157.13

for one thing, for another thing (discourse markers) 157.10

forbid + object + infinitive 283; + -ing form or infinitive 299.4

force + object + infinitive 283

fore- (prefix) 445.1

forever 191.5; with progressive form 472

forget + -ing form or infinitive 299.1; and leave 209

forgive ... ing 296.1

formal and informal language 311; in letters and emails 146-147

former the former 17.3

formula plural 524.4

forward(s) 614

found and find 304.2

fractions 389.1-3

frankly (discourse marker) 157.18

free adjective and adverb 27.2; and freely 27.2

French the French 17.2, 364

frequently position 22.3, 24.2

friendly adjective, not adverb 27.1

frightened by/of 410.5; very frightened 410.4

from, in, for and since (time) 208

from weak and strong form 616.3

from my point of view and in my opinion 434

front in front of, facing and opposite 402; in the front of 402.3

fronting 513

fruit uncountable 148.5

fuck (taboo word I swearword) 575; what the fuck etc 624

-ful (suffix) 445.2,4

full stops 473; in numbers 389.1,10; not used in abbreviations 2.1

fun and funny 210

funds plural with no singular 524.7

fungus plural 524.4

furniture uncountable 148.3

further and farther 201

furthermore 157.11

future 211-221
future forms in polite instructions etc (e.g. You'll need to ... ) 436.3
future in the past 221
future perfect 219
future progressive 220
going to 213
I am to ... 91
present forms or will/shall? 216
present progressive 214
present progressive or going to 214.2
shall in legal documents etc 218.6
simple present 215
will and shall 212; interpersonal uses 217
will and shall, going to and present progressive (advanced points) 218

gallon BrE and AmE 389.18

game and play 432.1

gather I gather that 243

gender (references to males and females) 222

general in general (discourse marker) 157.12

genitive see possessive

geo- (prefix) 445.1

geographical names article use 70.17

gerunds 293-300; see also -ing forms

get structures and meanings 223-224; AmE forms 304.3; get + object + infinitive 283; get and go (movement) 225; get, become, go, grow etc 128; have got 237, 239; I got instead of I've got 312.8; passive auxiliary (get caught etc) 223.5; passive imperatives (e.g. get vaccinated) 268.3; with two objects 610.1

get back to 599.5

get dressed, drowned, lost, married etc 223.4

get married/divorced 337

get on with 599.5

get round to ... ing 298.2

get used to 605.3

give with two objects 610.1; in passive 415; with action nouns (give a cry etc) 226; give it a push etc 598.2

give up ... ing 296.1

glass (uncountable) and a glass 148.4

glasses plural with no singular 524.7

go + infinitive or -ing form 296.4; go ... ing 228; go and 53.2; go and come 134; go and get (movement) 225; go, become, get, grow etc 128; go for a walk, swim etc 227,598.2

go (noun) a go 598.1

go on + -ing form or infinitive 299.2

God (taboo word / swearword) 575

God Almighty word order 13.1; God bless you 567.4; God save the Queen 567.4

going to (future auxiliary) 213, 216, 218

gold and golden 386.4

gone active past participle 409.4; be gone 229

gonna (= going to) 213.4, 308.4

good preposition 449; better, best 137.2; a good two hours etc 532.6; any/no good 57; + infinitive 284.4; and well 617.1; good at ... ing 297.1; good for ... to 291.4; it's no good ... ing 295.5

good-looking comparative/superlative 137.4

Good morning etc 545.2; Goodbye 545.2

goods plural with no singular 524.7

goose plural 524.2

got have got 237, 239; I got instead of I've got 312.8; see also have

gotta (= got to) 239.4, 308.4

gotten 304.3

government + singular or plural 526.1

gradable adjectives 489.1

granted (discourse marker) 157.5

grape(s) countable 148.5

grateful and thankful 582

great, big and large 106

greetings 545.2,4

groceries plural with no singular 524.7

ground floor etc 389.9

group + singular or plural 526.1,2

group- and piece-words 430

grow, become, get, go etc 128

grown up active past participle 409.3,4

guess can guess 125.2; guess so/not 539; I guess (discourse marker) 157.16

had weak and strong form 616.3

had better 230; had better, should and ought 230.1; in indirect speech 278.3

had I meaning 'if I had' etc 261.5

had rather obsolete form 491.3

had to do and must have done 361.3

hair (uncountable) and a hair 148.5

half 231; half of 231.1; half of + plural verb 526.2; half as ... as 136.7; half two (= half past two) 579.1; halves 524.1

handicapped spelling 562.7; the handicapped 17.1

'hanging' (misrelated) participles 411.4

happen to 232; after in case 271.2; in if-clauses 261.1; structure with there 587.2; happen in negative sentences 369.4

Happy birthday / New Year etc 545.4

happy to 284.1

hard adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138; hard and hardly 27.2; hard to please 284.4

hardly position 24.4; inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7; hardly ever/any etc 43.3; hardly, scarcely and no sooner 233; question tags 487.4

has weak and strong form 616.3

hat in a hat 450

hate non-progressive verb 471.2; + -ing form or infinitive 299.9; + object + infinitive 283

have 234-239

+ object + verb form 238
actions (have a bath, breakfast etc) 236,598.2
auxiliary verb 235
contractions (I've, hasn't etc) 143
don't have to, needn't and mustn't 359.3, 360.4
have and be 92
have (got) possession, relationships etc 237
have (got) to 239; and must 361.1; future: have (got) to, will have to and must 361.2
have or take (a bath, shower etc) 236.1
I got instead of I've got 312.8
not used in passive 412.4
question tags 488.6
weak and strong form 616.3
with or without do 237, 239

Have a good holiday/time/trip etc 545.9,10

have on (= be wearing) 164.3

he (personal pronoun) 428-429; meaning 'he or she' 222.2; he or she 222.2; he/she who 429.9; used for animals 222.1; weak and strong form 616.3; see also personal pronouns

headlines 240

headquarters singular and plural 524.3

health uncountable 149.4

hear non-progressive verb 471.2; can hear 125.1; hear and listen (to) 241; hear something happen/happening/done 242; I hear that ... 243; make oneself heard 335.2; he was heard to 418.3; so I hear 539.3

Heaven forbid 567.4

heavy 'unmarked' use 350

height expressions with no preposition 451.8

height use of be 92.2

hell (taboo word / swearword) 575; why the hell etc 624

help (verb) 244; can't help (... ing) 126; help + (object +) infinitive 281.2,282, 283; he was helped to 418.3

her (personal pronoun) 428-429; (possessive) 441; weak and strong form 616.3; see also personal pronouns; possessives

herd 430.4

here and there 245; here comes ... etc 303; here's + plural noun 532.4

Here you are 545.18

hero plural 523.3; and heroine 222.4

hers 442

herself 493

hesitate to 282

high adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138; high and highly 27.2; high and tall 246; two metres high etc 13.4

high tea 347.1

high time 306.2

him (personal pronoun) 428-429; weak and strong form 616.3; see also personal pronouns

himself 493

hire, rent and let 247

his (e.g. his house) 441; (e.g. it's his) 442; weak and strong form 616.3; see also possessives

historic and historical 254.3

holiday(s) 248; questions/wishes about holidays 545.9,10

home 249; and house 249.2; expressions without article 70.1

homeward(s) 614

honestly (discourse marker) 157.18

-hood (suffix) 445.2

hope 250; + infinitive 282; + present with future meaning 250.1; hope, expect, wait and look forward 196; hope for ... to 291. 7; hope so/not 539; I was hoping, I had hoped 250.3; negative structures 250.2, 369.2

hopefully 251

hospital expressions without article 70.1

host and hostess 222.4

hot be hot 92.1

house and home 249.2

houses pronunciation 525.4

hovercraft singular and plural the same 524.3

how 252; and how much 252.2; and the way 252.7; and what ... like 253; exclamations 195,252.4; how-clauses in sentences 252.6; how, like and as 252.3; how to 277.2; how, what and why 252.4; no matter how 378; special word order with adjectives 14

how about ... ? 252.4

How are you? and How do you do? 545.1,3

How dare you? 151.3

How do you know? 252.4

how else 183.1

how ever 624

how far 252.5

how long? with present perfect 460.1; How long are you here for? and How long have you been here for? 330.5

how much/many 252.5; and how 252.2

how often 252.5

how old 252.5

how on earth, the hell, the fuck etc 624

How should I know? etc 482.2

however, although, though and but 49; however (discourse marker) 157.3

however (conjunction) 625; and no matter how 378.2

hundred and a hundred 389.11; and hundreds 389.15

hungry be hungry 92.1

hurry without -self 493.9; hurry up and 53.2

hurt present tenses 466.7

hyper- (prefix) 445.1

hyphens 559

hypothesis plural 524.4

I, me etc (personal pronouns) 428-429; after as 136.4; after but 116.2; after than 139.6; I and me, she and her etc: the differences 428.2, 429; I in double objects (e.g. between you and I) 312.6, 429.1; I who 498.12; It is I who / It is me that 131.2; me in double subjects (e.g. John and me went) 309.3; see also personal pronouns

I am to 91

I beg your pardon 545.7

I dare say 151.3

I don't know (discourse marker) 157.17

I feel (discourse marker) 157.16

I gather/hear/see/understand that 243

I guess (discourse marker) 157.16

I know and I know it 313.6

I mean (discourse marker) 348.4, 157.15-17

I reckon (discourse marker) 157.16

I should meaning 'If I were you, I should' 264.2

I suppose (discourse marker) 157.16

I think (discourse marker) 157.16

I think I'll (softening expression) 437.2

I told you so 540.2

I would meaning 'If I were you, I would' 264.2

-(i)an (suffix) 445.3

-ic and -ical (suffixes) 445.4; differences 254.3

idea preposition 449; a good idea for ... to 291.5; the idea of ... ing 297.1; uncountable use 149.2

identify structure with as 607.2

identifying and non-identifying relative clauses 495; 498.14; see also relative structures

idioms 255

if 256-264
basic structures: ordinary tense use 257
basic structures: past tenses and would 258
basic structures: unreal past situations 259
discourse marker showing concession 157.5
double negative in sentences with if 261.8
even if 189.4
if ... any 55.1; if ... ever 191.1; if ... happen to 261.1; if ... ing 411.6; if ... should 261.1; if ... then 261.9; if ... was/were to 261.2
if and in case 271; and when 618; and whether 621
if I were you 264
if in indirect questions 276.3
if it was/were not for 261.3
if meaning 'even if' 261.10
leaving out if 261.4,5
other words with the same meaning 263
preparatory it (e.g. it will be a pity if) 446.5
sentences with if in indirect speech 278.5
structures in spoken English 262
various meanings 261.10-13
will in if-clause 260
with past participle (e.g. if asked) 411.6

if any, ever, necessary, in doubt etc 261.6

if not and unless 601.1,2

if only 265

if so/not 261.7

if you like 325.7

-ify (suffix) 445.6

ill position 12.3; and sick 266; preposition 449

ill- (prefix) 445.1

illnesses usually uncountable 148.7; with or without the 70.14

I'm, I've, don't etc (contractions) 143

I'm afraid (discourse marker) 157.16

im- (prefix) 445.1

imagine non-progressive verb 471.2; + (object -r) -ing form 296.1,2; imagine (that) 263; + so/not 539; in negative sentences 369

immediately (conjunction) 267

imperatives 268; question tags 488.2; structures with let 323

important + subjunctive 567.2; + for ... to 291.2,4; structure with should 521.1

impossible to 284.4; for ... to 291.4

impressed preposition 449

in (place) 81; in and into 269; in and to 80; in, at and on 81; in bed, hospital etc 70.1

in (time) 82; in a month's time etc 82.6; in and during 168; and later 315; in, at and on 82; in, from, for and since 208

in addition 157.11; in addition to ... ing 298.2

in any case (discourse marker) 157.7,11

in case and if 271; + happen to / should 271.2

in case of 271.4

in conclusion 157.21

in fact (discourse marker) 157.20

in front of, facing and opposite 402; in front of and before 98

in general (discourse marker) 157.12

in most cases 157.12

in my opinion 157.16; and from my point of view 434

in my view 157.16

in order that and so that 543

in order to 289

in other words 157.15

in particular (discourse marker) 157.13

in short (discourse marker) 157.21

in some cases 157.12

in spite of 272; in spite of ... ing 411.6; in spite of this/that 157.3

in the end, at the end, at last and finally 204

in the first etc place (discourse marker) 157.10

in the same way (discourse marker) 157.4

in the way and on the way 615.5

in time and on time 450, 593.3

in which case 498.5

in- (prefix) 445.1

inch 389.18

incidentally 157.8

inclined structures 298.2

include non-progressive verb 471.2

increased active past participle 409.3

indeed 273

indefinite pronouns see somebody, anybody, you etc

independence and independent prepositions 449

indirect and direct objects 610

indirect speech 274-8
I asked how old you are / were etc 278.2
infinitives 277
modal verbs 278.3
negative questions 278.6
past use of must 359.5
questions and answers 276
reporting past tenses with past or past perfect 278.1
reporting Shall I ... ? 278.4
sentences with if 278.5
tenses 275
with relative structures: somebody I know you'll like; a car that I didn't know how fast it could go 498.15,16
without reporting verbs 278.9
word order with what, which and who 278.7

infinitives 279-292
active and passive infinitive with similar meaning 287
after adjectives 284
after easy, difficult, impossible etc 284.4
after nouns and pronouns 285
after relatives (e.g. a garden in which to play) 498.13
after superlatives (e.g. the youngest person to) 141.5, 284.3
after verbs 282; after verb + object 283
for ... to 291
forms 280
future meaning (e.g. the life to come) 285.6
in indirect speech 277
in news headlines 240.2
infinitive or -ing form 293.3; after verbs 296.4; after way 615.3; special cases 299
infinitive without to 281; after: as ... as 136.9; but 116.3; except 194.5; help 244; let 322; make 335; rather than 491.1; why 628.3; would rather 491.2
perfect infinitive (e.g. to have left) 288
position of prepositions (e.g. to look at) 452
progressive, perfect, passive and negative infinitives 280
purpose (e.g. I sat down to rest) 289
split infinitive 280.7
structure with preparatory it 446-447
subject, object or complement 290
to 280.6; used instead of whole infinitive 182
who to ... , what to ... etc 286

informal and formal language 311

information structure 512; reasons for using passives 414.2-4

information uncountable 148.3

-ing forms 408-11,293-300
a waiting room, a waiting train 294
after mind 351.3; after nouns and adjectives 297; after prepositions 298, 454; after verbs 296
as subjects, objects or complements 295
gerunds 293-300
go/come ... ing 228
in progressive verbs: see progressive
-ing form or infinitive 293.3; after verbs 296.4; after way 615.3; special cases 299
it as preparatory subject or object 295.5
passive meaning (e.g. it needs cleaning) 296.3
perfect, passive and negative -ing forms 293.2
present participles 408-411, 300
terminology 293
to ... ing 298.2
with determiner (e.g. the opening of Parliament, my smoking) 295.3
with object (e.g. smoking cigarettes) 295.2

-ing (suffix) 445.2

initials names of organisations 2

insist + subjunctive 567.2; preposition 449

instance for instance 157.13

instant the instant (that) 267

instead 301.3; instead of 301.1,2; instead of ... ing 411.6; instead of and without 301.2

instruct + object + infinitive 283

instructions use of tenses 465; words left out 1.1

intend + object + infinitive 283; + -ing form or infinitive 299.11; in negative sentences 369.4

inter- (prefix) 445.1

interest(ed) preposition 449; + -ing form or infinitive 299.16; interested and interesting etc 409.2

international English 308.7

interrogative see questions; interrogative pronouns see who, what, which

into and in 269

intonation 555; in question tags 487.5; in relative clauses 495.2

introductions 545.1

inversion verb before subject 302-303; in older English 392

inverted commas see quotation marks

invitations 545.15

invite + object + infinitive 283

involve non-progressive verb 471.2; involve ... ing 296.1

involved position and meaning 410.3

Irish the Irish 17.2, 364

irregular verbs list of common examples 304

is weak and strong form 616.3

-ise/ize (suffix) 445.6; -ise or -ize 558

-ish (suffix) 445.4

-ism (suffix) 445.2

-ist (suffix) 445.3

it personal pronoun 428-429; and this/that (things that have just been mentioned) 590; referring to nothing 428.7; referring to the situation 428.7; referring to time, weather, temperature and distances 428.8; used to identify (e.g. It's John) 428.9; it was me that / it was I who etc 429.3; it was my secretary who etc (cleft sentences) 131; it's impossible for ... to etc 291.4; preparatory subject and object 446-447;
see also preparatory it

it doesn't matter and no matter 378.3

it is the first/last etc tenses 591

it is true (discourse marker) 157.5

item of information etc 430.1

its 441; and it's 305

it's ... since tenses 522.2

it's time 306

itself 493

-ity (suffix) 445.2

-ive (suffix) 445.4

-ize (suffix) 445.6; and -ise 558

Japanese singular and plural the same 524.3

jeans plural with no singular 524.7

Jesus (taboo word / swearword) 575

journey (countable) and travel (uncountable) 148.3; have/did you have a good journey 545.9; journey, travel, trip and voyage 597

jury + singular or plural 526.1

just adjective and adverb 27.2; just and justly 27.2; just (adverb): meanings and tenses 307; position 24.6, 25; used for emphasis 184.3; just as / when 73.3; just as (discourse marker) 157.4

just because ... , it doesn't mean 94.3

just now meanings and tenses 307.3

keep meaning 'stay' 128.10; keep (on) ... ing 296.1

kibbutz plural 524.4

kick with two objects 610.1

kidnapped etc spelling 562.7

kilo plural 523.3

kilo- (prefix) 445.1

kind of (= sort of) 551; following article dropped 70.6; these kind of 551.2; discourse marker 157.16,17; softening expression 437.1

kind to 449; so kind as to 538.8

kinds of English accents 308.4; correctness, rules 309; formality 311; international English 308.7; spoken and written English 310; standard English and dialects 308; variation and change 312

King, Queen etc without article 70.12

knife plural 524.1

know structures and tenses 313; + object + infinitive without to 281.2; + object + to be 607.3; and find out 313.5; and know about/of 313.4; know about not followed by that 453.1; non-progressive verb 471.2; passive (she is known to be ... ) 418.2; you know, I don't know discourse markers 157.17

knowledge uncountable 148.3

known to 410.5; well known 410.4

lack non-progressive verb 471.2; no following preposition 451.1; not used in passive 412.4

lack (noun) preposition 449

large and wide 106.4; large, big and great 106

last word order with complement 13.5; at last 204.2; expressions with no preposition 451.2; last but one etc 116.1; last, the last and the latest 314; tenses after this is the last etc 591; the last ... to 284.3; last three etc 314.2

lastly (discourse marker) 157.10

late adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) later and latest 138; and lately 27.2

lately with present perfect 455.5, 458.5

later and in 315

latest, last and the last 314

latter the latter 17.3

laugh preposition 449

lay and lie 316

lead and leaden 386.4

leaf plural 524.1

learn forms 317.1; + -ing form or infinitive 299.8; learn to and learn how to 317.2

learned (adjective) pronunciation 18

least and fewest 318; at least 318.6, 157.7,16

leave preposition 449; + object + infinitive 283; and forget 209; with preparatory it (e.g. I'll leave it to you to decide) 447.4; with two objects 610.1

leave off ... ing 296.1

leaving out words see ellipsis

left (= remaining) 319

leisurely adjective and adverb 27.1

lend with two objects 610.1; and borrow 109; passive structures 415

length 'unmarked' use 350; expressions with no preposition 451.8

length use of be 92.2

less and fewer 320.1; less + plural (e.g. less people) 312.9; less of 320.2

-less (suffix) 445.4

lesser 320.4

lest 321

let structures 322; + object + infinitive without to 281.2; let, allow and permit 42; let him etc (third-person imperative) 323.3; let's 323; question tag 488.3; let's see, let me see, let me think 323.2

let, rent and hire 247

letters 146; words left out in informal letters 1

lexical phrases (fixed expressions) 255

lie and lay 316

life countable or uncountable 324; plural 524.1

lightning uncountable 148.3

like (similarity, function) 326; comparative and superlative 137.5; feel like 202.3,4; like, as and how 252.3; meaning 'as if' 74.3; like this/that and so 536; seem like 507.5

like (verb) structures and meanings 325; would have liked to have seen etc 288.2; if you like 325.7; like to: no passive 418.6; non-progressive verb 471.2

-like (suffix) 445.4

likely 327; adjective, not adverb 27.1; structures 291.4; with there 587.5

link verbs 328

listen preposition 449; and hear 241; listen to: passive structure 416.1

little (adjective) position 12.2; and small 534

little (determiner), a little and (a) few 329; + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7; the little that 494.5; little of 329.2; little else 183.1; question tags 487.4

live position 12.2

lively adjective, not adverb 27.1

loaf of bread 430.1

logo plural 523.3

lone, alone, lonely and lonesome 44

lonely adjective, not adverb 27.1

long (adjective) after measurement nouns 13.4

long (adverb) longer/longest 138; a long way and far 200; long and (for) a long time 330

Long live the King 567.4

look link verb and ordinary verb 331; non-progressive verb 471.2; not followed by if 331.3; preposition 449; discourse marker 157.19

look after, look for and fetch 331.4

look at + object + -ing form or infinitive 242.4; look at, see and watch 506; passive structure 416.1

look for, look after and fetch 331.4

look forward to ... ing 298.2; look forward, expect, hope and wait 196

look here (discourse marker) 157.19

look out for 599.5

lose and loose 332

lots, a lot 333.2; quite a lot 489.4; with comparatives 140.1

loud adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) louder/loudest 138; loudly and aloud 334

louse plural 524.2

love meaning 'zero' 389.4

love non-progressive verb 471.2; + object + infinitive 283; + -ing form or infinitive 299.9

lovely adjective, not adverb 27.1

low adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) lower/lowest 138

luck uncountable 148.3

lucky to 284.2

luggage uncountable 148.3

lunch and dinner 347

-ly (suffix) 445.4,5; spelling of adverbs 557

macaroni uncountable 148.5

madam 363.2

made of/from/with 336

magic and magical 254.3

majority the majority 333.5; the majority of + plural verb 526.2

make causative structures 335; + action noun (e.g. make a guess) 598.2; + object + infinitive without to 281.2; made of/from/with 336; make and do 160; make oneself heard/understood 335.2; make somebody welcome, happy etc 335.3; passive (he was made to ... , it has been made beautiful) 418.3, 419; with two objects 610.1

mal- (prefix) 445.1

male and masculine 203

man plural 524.2; man or men in noun + noun compounds 531.2; without article meaning 'the human race' 222.6

manage to 282

mankind 222.6

manners plural with no singular 524.7

many and much 357; see also much

'marked' and 'unmarked' adjectives and nouns in measurements 350

marriage preposition 449

marry no following preposition 451.1; get married 337; not used with each other / one another 171.5

mathematics singular, no plural 524.3

matter non-progressive verb 471.2; it doesn't matter and no matter 378.3

matter (noun) no matter who/what etc 378; structure with there 587.2; the matter (with) 585

may and might 338-345
chances etc 339
may ... (but) discourse marker showing concession 157.5, 342
may in wishes and hopes 341
may/might as well 343
may/might have done 339.8,9,259.2
may/might not and can't 339.4
might in indirect speech 278.3
might meaning 'would perhaps' 258.6, 339.5
might making questions etc less direct 436.4
permission 340
requests, suggestions and criticisms 344
the difference between may and might 339.2
the differences between may/might and can/could 345

maybe position 22.4; and perhaps 346; softening expression 437.1

mayor and mayoress 222.4

me (personal pronoun) 428-429; after be 428.3; in double subjects (e.g. John and me went) 428.3, 429.1; me neither, me either 374.2; me or I etc after as, than, but and except 429.2; me too 46.3; me/my smoking etc 295.3; see also personal pronouns

meals 347; thanks for meals etc 545.11,15

mean (verb) 348; + -ing form or infinitive 299.7; + object + infinitive 283; and think 348.2; I mean (discourse marker) 348.4, 157.15-16; I meant to have done it 288.2; non-progressive verb 471.2; structure of questions 348.1; What do you mean? 348.5

meaning and opinion 348.2

means 349; by all/any/no means 349.2; means of and way of 615.4; singular and plural the same 524.3

measles singular; no plural 524.3; uncountable 148.7

measure non-progressive verb 471.2

measurement 'marked' and 'unmarked' forms 350; a five-litre can etc 386.5; expressions without preposition 451.8; high and tall 246; adjectives after measurement nouns 13.4; foot, inch etc 389.18

media singular (uncountable) or plural 524.3

meet (with) 312.9; not used with each other / one another 171.5

mega- (prefix) 445.1

melt active or passive meaning 609.2

-ment (suffix) 445.2

mention ... ing 296.1

mere position 12.2

metre etc 389.18

micro- (prefix) 445.1

mid- (prefix) 445.1

Middle Ages plural with no singular 524.7

might see may

mile 389.18

milli- (prefix) 445.1

million (a) million 389.11; and millions 389.15

mimicked spelling 562.8

mind (verb) meaning, use and structures 351

mind you 157.3

mine, yours etc 442; a friend of mine etc 443

mini- (prefix) 445.1

ministry + singular or plural verb 526.1

mis- (prefix) 445.1

misrelated participles 411.4

Miss 363.1c

miss (verb) meanings and structures 352

missing (adjective) 352.5

mistake for ... to 291.5

mistaken (very) much mistaken 410.4

modal auxiliary verbs grammar and meanings 353-354; in indirect speech 278.3; used to make questions etc less direct 436.4

moment the moment (that) 267

Monday etc with no preposition 451.3

money notes, coins and amounts 389.16,17; singular verbs and pronouns 527.1

money uncountable 148.3

mono- (prefix) 445.1

monthly adjective and adverb 27.1

more (adverb) 355.5; no more and not any more 379; more and more 139.4

more (determiner) 355; more of 355.1,2; and other 54.2

more in comparatives 137-138

more than one + singular verb 527.3

more or less (discourse marker) 157.16

moreover 157.11

mosquito plural 523.3

most 356; most of 356.1,2; and mostly 27.2; in superlatives 137-138; meaning 'very' 356.7; (the) most as adverb 356.5

mostly 356.8

mother-in-law plural 524.6

mouse plural 524.2

mouths pronunciation 525.4

move active or passive meaning 609.1

mph (= miles per hour) 389.20

Mr, Mrs and Ms 363.1c, 222.7

much and many 357; as much/many ... as 136.5,6; + relative clause with that 494.5; much/many of 357.2,3; much and very with past participles 410.4; much as an adverb 357.7; much else 183.1; much/many more 140.2; much too 595.3; much with comparatives and superlatives 140

multi- (prefix) 445.1

musical instruments article use 70.10

must 358-361
and have (got) to 361.1
and should 359.6, 360.7
deduction (concluding that something is certain) 359
in indirect speech 278.3, 359.5, 360.6
must have done/been etc 359.4
must have done and had to do 361.3
must not and need not 366.7
must, ought and should 520
must, will have to and have (got) to (future obligation) 361.2
mustn't and can't 359.2
mustn't in AmE 361.4
mustn't, needn't and don't/doesn't have to 359.3, 360.4
necessity and obligation 360
pronunciation 358.1f
weak and strong form 616.3

my, your etc 441; my/me smoking etc 295.3,4; see also possessives

myself, yourself etc 493

naked pronunciation 18

names English versions of place names, classical names etc 362

names and titles (e.g. Peter, Mr Lewis) 363

nationalities nouns and adjectives (e.g. Ireland, Irish, an Irishman/woman, the Irish) 364

nature without the 68.1, 69.4

near (adverb) comparative and superlative 138

near (preposition) and by 118; near to 365

nearest, next and the next 375

nearly position 24.4; nearly, almost and practically 43; not used with never etc 43.3; with superlatives 140.3

necessary structure with should 521.1; + for ... to 291.4; if necessary 261.6

need (noun) structure with there 587.2

need (verb) forms and use 366; + object + infinitive 283; needn't have and didn't need to 366.6; in indirect speech 278.3; needn't, mustn't and don't have to 359.3, 360.4, 366.7; need never + infinitive 366.6; non-progressive verb 471.2

negative structures 367-371
ambiguous sentences 371
basic rules 367
double negatives 370; in dialects 309.2; in expressions of doubt 261.8, 370.6
negative imperatives (e.g. don't worry) 367.2
negative infinitives 280.5
negative -ing forms (e.g. not knowing) 293.2
negative questions 368; as exclamations 195.4; in indirect speech 278.6; yes and no in answers 368.4
n't 143
think, seem etc in negative structures 369

neglect to 282

negro plural 523.3

neither (adverb) position 24.6; neither ... nor 373; neither, nor and not ... either 374

neither (determiner) 372; neither of 372.1,2; neither one 395.5; neither, no and none 376.5; pronunciation 372.4

neo- (prefix) 445.1

-ness (suffix) 445.2

never + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7; and not ever 191.1; not used with do 367.5; position 22.3, 24.2; position in imperatives 268.7; question tags 487.4; with present perfect 455.5; with simple past 457.4

nevertheless 157.3

news uncountable 148.3, 524.3

news headlines 240

next expressions with no preposition 451.2; next but one etc 116.1; next, the next and the nearest 375; next Sunday two possible meanings 375.3; next three etc 375.2; word order with complement 13.5

nice preposition 449; nice and 16.3

nickel 389.17

night at night 70.1

nil 389.4

no (adverb) no older etc, no different 57

no (answer) and yes 634; in answers to negative questions 368.4

no (determiner) and neither 376.5; and not all 36.6; and not 382; no ... but (= except) 116.1; no, none and not any 376; question tags 487.4

no doubt 377; discourse marker 157.18

no good 57.3

no longer, not any more and no more 379

no matter who, what etc 378; and whoever, whatever etc 378.2; no matter and it doesn't matter 378.3; no matter what with no following verb 378.4

no more, not any more and no longer 379

no need for ... to 291.5

no one 548; and none 380; and not anyone 370.2, 376.6; question tags 487.4, 488.5

No problem reply to thanks 433.5, 545.19

no sooner, hardly and scarcely 233

no use 57.3

nobody and no one 548; no difference 548.1; and not anybody 370.2; nobody else 183.1; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 487.4, 488.5

non- (prefix) 445.1

non-affirmative words (e.g. any, ever, yet) 381

non-assertive words see non-affirmative words

non-defining relative clauses see identifying and non-identifying relative clauses

none and neither 376.5; none + relative clause with that 494.5; and no one 380; none ... but (= except) 116.1; none, no and not any 376; none of which etc 498.8; none the worse, none the wiser etc 141.2

nonetheless 157.3

non-gradable adjectives 489.1

non-identifying relative clauses 495, 498.14

non-progressive verbs 471

no one position with adjectives 13.6; no one else 183.1

nor and or 370.5; neither ... nor 373; nor, neither and not ... either 374

normal structure with should 521.2; normal for ... to 291.4

normally position 22.3, 24.2

north and northern etc 172; capital letters 172.3

northward(s) etc 614

not and no 382; afraid/hope/believe not etc 28, 369.3, 539.2; if not 261.7; not all 36.6; not any, no and none 376; not ... either, neither and nor 374; weak and strong form 616.3; see also negative structures

not a bit 107.3

not a grain/breath/scrap etc 430

not any more, no more and no longer 379

not at all 83.3; reply to thanks 433.5, 545.19

not ever and never 191.1

not in the least 318.7

not only ... but also 383

not quite 489.5

not until + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7

not very 611.2

nothing 548; and not anything 370.2; nothing for ... to 291.6; nothing that 494.5; nothing to do and nothing to be done 287.3; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 487.4, 488.5

notice, hear etc something happen(ing) 242

notices words left out 1.4

nought 389.4

noun + for ... to 291.5

noun + infinitive (e.g. decision to leave) 285; noun + infinitive + preposition (e.g. a friend to play with) 285.5; work to do / to be done etc 287.1

noun + -ing form 297

noun + noun 385-386; a five-litre can etc 386.5; antique shop or antiques shop 312.9; article dropped 385.3; in news headlines 240.2; noun + noun or preposition structure 386; stress 385.6; structure with possessive's (e.g. children's clothes, cow's milk) 386.6-8

noun + 's forms 439; use 440; or preposition structure 440.1,2

noun complementation what can follow a noun? 384

nouns left out after adjectives 17

nouns used for actions (a crash, cough etc) 598

now (showing change of subject) 157.8

now (that) 387

nowadays 388

nowhere 548; and not anywhere 370.2, 376.6; position with adjectives 13.6

nucleus plural 524.4

number a large number 333.4; a number of + plural verb 526.2; article dropped after a number of 70.7

number see singular and plural

numbers 389; a five-litre can etc 386.5; five pounds, twenty miles etc + singular verb 527.1; full stops in decimals 476.11; use of commas 476.11

oasis plural 524.4

object to ... ing 298.2

objects direct and indirect 610

oblige + object + infinitive 283

occasionally position 22.3, 24.2; with present perfect 455.6

-ocracy (suffix) 445.2

odds plural with no singular 524.7

of after: determiners 154.4; (a) little and (a) few 329.2; all 36.1; any 55.7; both 110.2,4; each 169.2; either 174.2; enough 187.4; fractions and decimals 389.2; half 231.1; less and fewer 320.2; more 355.2; most 356.2; much and many 357.3; neither 372.2; none 376.2; some 546.6; which 622.3; whole 40.5
noun + noun with of or 's 440.1,2
weak and strong form 616.3

of course 390; (discourse marker) 157.5

of which 496.2

offer + infinitive 277.1, 282; passive structures 415; with two objects 610.1

offers 545.16

often 391; position 22.3, 24.2; with present perfect 455.6

OK showing change of subject 157.8

old position and meaning 12.2; after measurement nouns 13.4; the old 17.1; 'unmarked' use 350

older English verb forms 392

-ology (suffix) 445.2

omission of words see ellipsis

omni- (prefix) 445.1

on and about 4

on ... ing 411.6

on (place) 81.2; on and onto 269; on, at and in 81; on the bus, train etc 81.4

on (time) 82; on, at and in 82; on/at weekends 312.9

on condition that 263; + present with future meaning 580.2

on earth who on earth etc 624

on foot 70.1

on holiday 248

on one's own 405.5

on the contrary 157.6; and on the other hand 144.1

on the one hand, on the other hand 157.2

on the way and in the way 615.5

on the whole 157.12

on time and in time 450

on top of that (discourse marker) 157.11

once (adverb) and one day 393; at once 393; with simple past or past perfect 424.1

once (conjunction) 394

one and a in numbers 389.11; one and a half 231.5; one and first, two and second etc 389.7; one Tuesday etc (no preposition) 451.2; one/two more etc 355.4; one of 397

one, ones (substitute word) 395

one, you and they (indefinite personal pronouns) 396; one's 441.2

one another and each other 171; and -selves 171.4

one day and once 393

oneself 493

only use and position 398; + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7; + relative clause with that 494.5; if only 265; not only ... but also 383; only today etc 398.4; only too 595.8; the only ... ever 191.2; the only ... to 284.3

onto and on 269

open (adjective) and opened 399

open (verb) without -self 493.9; active or passive meaning 609.1

operate preposition 449

opinion in my opinion 157.16; and according to me 8; opinion and point of view 434

opportunity and possibility 400

opposite (adjective) position 401; and contrary 144.2

opposite (noun) quite the opposite 157.6

opposite (preposition), facing and in front of 402

or + infinitive without to 281.4; and nor 370.5; either ... or 175; dropping words after or 178; singular or plural verb after expression with or 532.2; whether ... or 620

-or (suffix) 445.2

or else 183.5

or rather (discourse marker) 104.2, 157.16

orchestra + singular or plural 526.1

order + object + infinitive 283

other and different 54.5; and more 54.2; and others 54

ought 403; and had better 230.1; and should 403.2; in indirect speech 278.3; ought, must and should 520; ought to have done 403.5; question and negative forms 403.1,4

ounce 389.18

our 441; weak and strong form 616.3

ours 442

ourselves 493

-ous (suffix) 445.4

out and out of 404

out- (prefix) 445.1

outskirts plural with no singular 524.7

outward(s) 614

over and above 6; over, across and through 10

over- (prefix) 445.1

owe non-progressive verb 471.2; with preparatory it (e.g. we owe it to society to) 447.4; with two objects 610.1

owing to and due to 166

own 405; non-progressive verb 471.2

ox plural 524.2

page on page ... 81.7

pair 430.3

pan- (prefix) 445.1

panicking etc spelling 562.8

pants plural with no singular 524.7

paper (uncountable) and a paper 148.4

paragraphs 406

Pardon? 545.8; Pardon me? 545.8; I beg your pardon 545.7,8

parking uncountable 148.3

part without a 407

participles (-ing and -ed forms) 408-411
active and passive participles 409
after conjunctions and prepositions (e.g. after talking to you) 411.6
after nouns (e.g. the people questioned) 410.2
misrelated participles 411.4
participle clauses 411
past participles with by or other prepositions 410.5
past participles with very and much 410.4
reduced relative clauses (e.g. the girl dancing with your brother) 498.10
used as adjectives 410
see also -ing forms

particular in particular 157.13

party preposition 450; with singular or plural verb and pronoun 526.1

pass with two objects 610.1

passer-by plural 524.6

passives 412-420
by + agent 413
get as passive auxiliary (get caught etc) 223.5
he is believed to be ... 418
he was considered a genius 419
infinitives (e.g. to be taken three times a day, nothing to be done) 91.5, 287.2
-ing forms (being done) 293.2
it was thought that ... 417
list of structures and verb forms 412
meaning and grammar not the same 414.5
my suitcase is packed 420
passives without be in news headlines 240.2
position of prepositions 452
verbs not used in passive 412.4
verbs with prepositions 416
verbs with two objects 415
when do we use passive structures? 414

past continuous see past progressive

past participles see participles

past perfect 423-425; or simple past with after, as soon as etc 424.1; progressive 425; simple and progressive: the differences 425.4; with before 97.3; with if ('unreal past') 259; with suppose, supposing, what if ('unreal past') 571; with as if ('unreal past') 74

past progressive forms and use 422; difference between past progressive and simple past 422.3-6

past simple see simple past

past tense instead of would ... after conjunctions 580.6, 426.1

past verb form with present or future meaning 426; after I'd rather etc 491.3; after if 258; after if only 265; after it's time 306.2; after wish 630.4; in polite requests, questions etc 436.1, 426.2

paths pronunciation 525.4

pay preposition 449; in passive 415; pay for ... to 291.7; one and two objects 610.7

penny, pennies and pence 524.2, 389.16,17

people, person(s) and peoples 524.2

per (e.g. 70 miles per hour) 389.20

perfect infinitive (to have done) 280.2; after modal verbs (e.g. You should have written) 288.3

perfect -ing forms (e.g. having slept) 293.2

perfect tenses 427; with after 30.3; with before 97.3; with ever 191.3; with for and since 208.2; see also present perfect, past perfect, future perfect

perhaps position 22.3; and maybe 346

period (full stop) 473

permission uncountable 148.3

permit + object + infinitive 283; + -ing form or infinitive 299.4; permit, allow and let 42

person, persons, people and peoples 524.2

personal pronouns 428-429
after adjectives (e.g. Poor you!) 429.7
he/she who 429.9
I and me, she and her etc: the differences 428.2, 429
I in double objects (e.g. between you and I) 429.1
indirect speech 274.3
it referring to nothing, the situation, time, weather, temperature, distances 428.7,8
it used to identify (e.g. It's John) 428.9
it was me that ... / it was I who... etc 429.3
me, him, her etc in double subjects (e.g. John and me went) 428.3,429.1
me or I etc after as, than, but, except 429.2
me/my smoking etc 295.3
personal and relative pronouns not used together 511.2
they meaning 'he or she' 222.3
us meaning 'me' 429.6
us women etc 429.1
we women, you men etc 428.10
we: inclusive and exclusive 429.5
you folks/guys 312.1,429.8; older and dialect singular and plural forms of you 429.8, 392

persuade + object + infinitive 283

phenomenon plural 524.4

-phile (suffix) 445.2

-phobe, -phobia (suffixes) 445.2

phone preposition 450

photo plural 523.3; take a photo 160.6

photo- (prefix) 445.1

phrasal verbs 599

physics singular, no plural 524.3

piano plural 523.3

picnickers etc spelling 562.8

picture in a picture 81.7

piece 430.1

piece- and group-words 430

pint BrE and AmE 389.18

piss (taboo word / swearword) 575

pity countable or uncountable 148.6

place expressions with no preposition 451.11; a place to live etc 431; a place we can stay etc 498.6; in the first/second etc place 157.10

place-names articles 70.17; English versions 362

plan (noun) for ... to 291.5

plane by plane 70.1; on/in a plane 81.4

play (noun) and game 432.1

play (verb) with one and two objects 610.7; play and act 432.2

please and thank you 433

please non-progressive verb 471.2

pleased preposition 449; + infinitive 284.1

plenty 333.3

plural see singular and plural

pm (= in the afternoon/evening) 579.3

Poet Laureate 13.1

poetess 222.4

poetry uncountable 148.3

point at or to 80.3

point uncountable use 149.2; there's no point etc 587.2

point of view preposition 450; and opinion 434

pointless for ... to 291.4

police plural with no singular 524.7

policeman/woman 222.4

polish active or passive meaning 609.2

polite preposition 449

politeness 435-7; distancing verb forms 436; please and thank you 433; softening expressions 437; questions as requests 435

politic and political 254.3

politics singular and plural the same 524.3; and policy 438

poly- (prefix) 445.1

poor the poor 17.1

possess non-progressive verb 471.2

possessive's 439-440; articles dropped 70.3; with noun + noun (e.g. children's clothes) 386.6; not used with the poor etc 17.1; or preposition structure 440.1,2

possessives 439-443; a friend of mine etc 443; mine, yours etc 442; my, your etc 441; noun + 's 439-440; my smoking, John's going to sleep etc 295.3

possibility and opportunity 400

possible position after noun 13.2, 498.10

post with two objects 610.1

post- (prefix) 445.1

postcards words left out 1.2

postpone ... ing 296.1

potato plural 523.3

pound (English money) 389.16

pound (weight) 389.18

practically position 24.4; practically, almost and nearly 43

practise ... ing 296.1

pre- (prefix) 445.1

predicative position of adjectives 12.1

prefer structures 444; + -ing form or infinitive 299.9; + object + infinitive 283; prefer ... ing to ... ing 298.2; non-progressive verb 471.2

prefixes 445

premises plural with no singular 524.7

preparatory it 446-447; with -ing forms 295.5; in passives (it was thought that, it was decided to etc) 417; with for ... to etc 291.4

prepare to 282

prepositions 448-454
after particular words and expressions 449
after superlatives (e.g. the happiest man in the world etc) 139.7
at the ends of clauses 452
before conjunctions 453
before -ing forms 298, 454
before particular words and expressions 450
dropped before question words 453.4
dropped before that 453.1,2
dropped in abbreviated styles 1
expressions without prepositions 451, 82.7
place 81
prepositional verbs (e.g. look at) 600
prepositional verbs in passive structures 416
prepositions and adverb particles 20
time 82
see also the entries for particular prepositions

prescriptive and descriptive rules 309.4

present position and meaning 13.3

present and present perfect the differences 460

present continuous see present progressive

present participles see participles

present perfect 455-460; for future after conjunctions 580.3; or present 460; or simple past 456-457; or simple past with already and yet 566.7; or simple past with just and just now 307.2,3; passive (has been done) 412.3

present perfect continuous see present perfect progressive

present perfect progressive 458; or simple 459; with after 30.3; with before 97.3; with ever 191.3; with for and since 208.2

present progressive 464-6; or simple present 461.2,3, 463.1-3, 464.6, 466; or present perfect progressive 460; passive (is being done) 412.3; talking about changes 464.4; used for future 214, 216, 218

present simple see simple present

present tenses 461-466
in stories, commentaries and instructions 465
used for future 213-216, 218
used for future after: after 30.2; as ... as 136.10; before 97.2; bet 103.2; most conjunctions 580.2; for 208.1; hope 250.1; if 257.2; so that / in order that 543; suppose, supposing and what if 571; unless 601.3; until 602.4
see also simple present; present progressive

presently 467

President etc without article 70.12

President elect 13.1

presume there are presumed to be 418.4

pretend to 282

pretty adjective and adverb 27.2; and prettily 27.2; pretty, fairly, quite and rather 199

prevent preposition 449; + object + from + -ing form 296.2

price and prize 468

prick (taboo word / swearword) 575

prince and princess 222.4

principle and principal 469

prison expressions without article 70.1

prize and price 468

pro- (prefix) 445.1

probable structures 291.4

probably position 24.3

professor 363.3

progress uncountable 148.3

progressive forms 470-472; in polite requests, questions etc 436.2; non-progressive verbs 471; and simple forms with as, when and while 73; progressive infinitive (to be doing) 280.1; with always etc 472; see also present progressive; present perfect progressive; past progressive; future progressive

promise + infinitive 277.1, 282; I promise 466.4; non-progressive verb 471.2; passive structures 415; with two objects 610.1

prone structures 298.2

pronouns see personal pronouns; reflexive pronouns; relative pronouns etc

pronunciation accents 308.3; British and American differences 51.4; pronunciation and spelling 565; 'received pronunciation' 308.3; silent letters 565.3; weak and strong forms 616; pronunciation of: a/an 65.7; aged, naked etc 18; ate, shone in AmE 304.3; can't 143.4 Note 3; -ed 421.2; -(e)s 462.3; either 174.6; going to ('gonna') 213.5; got to ('gotta') 239.4; Mr, Mrs, Ms 363.3; must 358.1f; neither 372.4; often 391; plurals 525; possessive's 439.2; read 304.1; says 304.3; some 546.2,6,7; the 64.8; want to ('wanna') 308.4, 613.4; younger/-est, longer/-est, stronger/-est 137.1 see also stress; intonation

proof preposition 449

-proof (suffix) 445.4

proper position and meaning 13.3

propose + infinitive or -ing form 296.4

proved or proven 304.3

provided/providing (that) 263

pseudo- (prefix) 445.1

psycho- (prefix) 445.1

public (noun) + singular or plural 526.1

publicity uncountable 148.3

punctuation 473-479
apostrophe 479; in plural abbreviations 2.4
colon 474; in news headlines 240.2
comma 476; after subordinate clauses 510.4; in numbers 389.10; in relative clauses 495.2; with adjectives 15.6
dash 477
exclamation mark 473
full stop 473; in numbers 389.1,10; not used in abbreviations 2.1
question mark 473; in news headlines 240.2; not used in indirect questions 276.2
quotation marks ('inverted commas') 478; in news headlines 240.2
semi-colon 475

push not followed by indirect object 610.6

put off ... ing 296.1

put up with 599.5

pyjamas plural with no singular 524.7

quarter (American money) 389.17

Queen, King etc without article 70.12

question uncountable use 149.2

question mark 473; in news headlines 240.2; not used in indirect questions 276.2

question tags 487-488; after imperatives 268.6; words left out before tags 179.4

questions 480-486; declarative questions (e.g. You're working late?) 481; echo questions 483; indirect questions 276; negative questions 368; position of prepositions 452; question-word clauses 485; questions about that-clauses 486; in polite requests 435.1; reply questions (e.g. Was it?) 484; rhetorical questions (e.g. How should I know?) 482

quick adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) quicker/-est 138; quickly, soon and early 550

quite meanings, structures and word order 489; quite, fairly, rather and pretty 199; quite with superlatives 140.3; softening expression 437.1

quite a bit, few, lot etc 489.4

quite the opposite (discourse marker) 157.6

quotation marks 478; in news headlines 240.1

radio preposition 450; (the) radio 70.11

radius plural 524.4

ragged pronunciation 18

rain in the rain 81.7

raise and rise 304.2

rare for ... to 291.4

rarely position 24.2; + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7

rather (adverb of degree) meanings, structures and word order 490; I'd rather like and I'd rather have 491.2; rather, fairly, quite and pretty 199; with comparatives 140.1

rather (preference) 491; or rather 157.16; and better 104.2; rather than + infinitive without to 281.4; softening expression 437.1; would rather 491.3; had rather (obsolete expression) 491.3

re- (prefix) 445.1

read with two objects 610.1

ready to 284.4

real adjective and adverb 27.2; comparative and superlative 137.5

realise non-progressive verb 471.2

really used for emphasis 184.3; discourse marker 157.16

reason for/why/that 492; for ... reason 450; uncountable use 149.2

'received pronunciation' 308.3

recently with present perfect 455.5, 458.5

reckon so/not 539; I reckon 157.16

recognise non-progressive verb 471.2

recommend + object + infinitive 283; + subjunctive 567.2

recovered active past participle 409.4

reduced relative clauses (e.g. the girl dancing with your brother) 498.10

reference with reference to 157.1

reflexive pronouns 493; and each other / one another 171.4; emphatic use (e.g. Do it yourself) 493.4

refuse + infinitive 282; passive structures 415; with two objects 610.1

regard as 607.2; in passive 419

regarding 157.1

regards plural with no singular 524.7

regret + -ing form or infinitive 299.3

relative clauses see relative structures

relative pronouns (who, which etc after nouns) 494-498; not used together with personal pronouns 511.2; see also relative structures

relative structures 494-498
basic information 494
comprehension problems 515.3
dropping object pronouns 495.4
identifying and non-identifying clauses 495
intonation and punctuation 495.2
position of prepositions 452, 498.7
relative + infinitive a garden in which to play etc 498.13
relative structures after way 615.2
use of that 494.5, 495.3, 498.4, 498.6
what 497
when, where and why 494.10
which referring to whole clause 494.9
whose 496
with indirect speech: somebody I know you'll like, a car that I didn't know how fast it could go 498.15,16

reluctant for ... to 291.3

remain 128.9

remains plural with no singular 524.7

remember + -ing form or infinitive 299.1; can remember 125.3; non-progressive verb 471.2; and remind 499.1; remember me to X 545.13

remind structures and preposition 499.2,3; and remember 499.1

rent, hire and let 247

repetition use and avoidance 500

reply questions 484

report there are reported to be ... 418.4

reported speech see indirect speech

reporting direct speech punctuation (use of commas and colons) 474.6

request (noun) for ... to 291.5

request (verb) + object + infinitive 283

require + -ing form (passive meaning) 296.3

research uncountable 148.3

resemble no following preposition 451.1; no passive 412.4

resent ... ing 296.1

resist ... ing 296.1

responsible and responsibility preposition 449

rest the rest 501

result as a result 157.14

retired active past participle 409.3,4

rhetorical questions 482

rhythm 554.6

rich the rich 17.1

right adjective and adverb 27.2; + infinitive 284.2; comparative and superlative 137.5; showing change of subject 157.8; and rightly 27.2; right for ... to 291.4

ring back 87.5

rise and arise 59; and raise 304.2

risk ... ing 296.1

road and street 502

Roman numbers (I, II, III etc) 389.6

roofs pronunciation 525.4

rotten 410.6

round, around and about 60

rubbish uncountable 148.3

rude preposition 449

rugged pronunciation 18

rules prescriptive and descriptive rules 309.4

run into 449

runner-up plural 524.6

's see possessive 's

sacred pronunciation 18

Safe journey home 545.9

Saint weak and strong form 616.3

same 503; word order with complement 13.5

satisfy non-progressive verb 471.2

savings plural with no singular 524.7

say structures 277.3; not used to report questions 276.4; past progressive use (e.g. John was saying) 422.7; passive structures (he is said to be, there was said to be, it is said that) 417.1, 418.2,4; say and tell 504; simple present in quotations (Hamlet says ... ) 466.5; he says so 540.1; so he says 539.3

says pronunciation 304.3

scales plural with no singular 524.7

scarcely position 24.4; question tags 487.4; scarcely, hardly and no sooner 233

school expressions without article 70.1; + singular or plural 526.1

scissors plural with no singular 524.7

Scot 364; Scottish and Scotch 364 Note a

scratch active or passive meaning 609.2

sea expressions without article 70.1; the sea 69.4

search preposition 449

secondly, thirdly etc 157.10

Secretary General 13.1

see meanings and structures 505; + object + infinitive or -ing form 242.1; can see 125.1; I see that ... 243; she was seen to 418.3; progressive and non-progressive uses 471.3; see if/whether 506.6; see, look at and watch 506; see ... as 607.2; he was seen as 419

see above/over 6.6

See you (later etc) 545.2

seem structures and use 507; and appear 58.2; can't seem to 507.4; in negative sentences 369.4; it seems so 536.1; it seems that / as if 507.6; non-progressive verb 471.2; there seems to be 507.7

seldom position 24.2; + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7

self plural 524.1

-self (myself etc) see reflexive pronouns

sell active or passive meaning 609.1; with two objects 610.1

semi- (prefix) 445.1

semi-colon 475

send with two objects 610.1; in passive 415

sense there's no sense in etc 587.2

sensible and sensitive 508

sentence structure basic word order 509; conjunctions 510-511; ellipsis (leaving out words) 177-182; embedding (clause inside clause) 515; fronting 513; information structure 512; reasons for using passives 414; spoken structures and tags 514; understanding complicated sentences 515; see also the entries for particular structures (e.g. if; imperatives; exclamations; relative structures; indirect speech)

series singular and plural the same 524.3

set of cutlery etc 430.4

several 154.3

sexist language 222

shade and shadow 516

shall offers, suggestions, asking for instructions and decisions 217.5; indirect speech 278.3; legal documents etc 218.6; shall and will (future auxiliaries) 212, 216-220; shall I ...? in indirect speech 278.4; weak and strong form 616.3; will replacing shall 312.9

shame for ... to 291.5

shape expressions with no preposition 451.8

shape use of be 92.2

share between/among 105.3

sharp adjective and adverb 27.2; and sharply 27.2

shave without -self 493.9

she 428-429; used for animals, countries, ships etc 222.1; weak and strong form 616.3; see also personal pronouns

sheep singular and plural the same 524.3

sheer position 12.2

sheet of paper, grain of sand etc 430.1

shelf plural 524.1

-ship (suffix) 445.2

shit (taboo word / swearword) 575

shocked to 284.1; by/at 410.5; with should 521.2; very shocked 410.4

shone AmE pronunciation 304.3

short adjective and adverb 27.2; and shortly 27.2; in short 157.21

short answers (e.g. Yes, he can) 517

shorten 128.9

should meanings, structures and use 518-521
after I insisted, it's important, it's surprising etc 521; after in case 271.2; after so that / in order that 543.3 and had better 230.1; and must 359.6, 360.7; and ought 403.2; should, ought and must 520
I should meaning 'If I were you, I should' 264
in if-clauses 261.1; in indirect speech 278.3; in sentences with if 258-259; in subordinate clauses 521
not used for past 519.3
should happen to 232
should have done 519.4
should I meaning 'if I should' etc 261.5
should/ would after I and we 518.5
weak and strong form 616.3
who should I see but etc 116.1
would replacing should 312.9

shout at or to 80.3; passive structure 416.1

show one and two objects 610.7; passive structures 415

shrunken 410.6

shut and close 132

sick and ill 266; he's sick / he's being sick 89

side either side 174.5

silk and silken 386.4

silly adjective, not adverb 27.1

similar word order with complement 13.5

similarly (discourse marker) 157.4

simple past forms, spelling, pronunciation and use 421; or past progressive 422.3-6; or present perfect 456-457; or present perfect with already and yet 566.7; or past perfect with after, as soon as etc 424.1; instead of past progressive or perfect after conjunctions 580.7

simple present forms, spelling, pronunciation and use 461-463, 465-466; or present progressive 461.2,3, 463.1-3,464.6,466; or present perfect 460, 463.6; instead of present progressive after conjunctions 580.7; future use 215

since tenses 522; since, for, in and from (time) 208; since ... ing 411.6; with present perfect progressive 458.5

since, as, because and for 72

sing structures with one and two objects 610.7

singular and plural 523-532
a three-mile walk etc 386.5, 389.15
another / a good three hours etc 532.6
distributive plural (e.g. they opened their books) 441.4
fractions and decimals 389.2,3
he/she or they after each 169.3
he/she or they after either 174.4
hundred and hundreds etc 389.15
irregular and special plurals 524
is/are after what-clause 130.1
mixed structures 529
noun + noun (e.g. a shoe shop) 385.2, 531
nouns and verbs after one of 397
one and a half 231.5
one of the ... who have/has etc 529.1
plural expressions with singular verbs 527
plural after here's, there's, where's 532.4
plural with apostrophe (e.g. 1960's) 524.5
plurals of compound nouns 524.6
pronunciation of plurals 525
singular nouns with plural verbs 526
singular and plural with sort of etc 551.2
spelling of plurals 523
they meaning 'he or she' 222.3, 528
verb after: as well as 532.2; bread and jam etc 532.2; each 169.2; either of 174.2; half (of) 231.1; neither of 372.2; neither ... nor 373; number/majority of etc 526.2; or 532.2; the rest 501; who and what 532.3
see also separate entries for particular words

sir 363.2; weak and strong form 616.3

size expressions with no preposition 451.8

size use of be 92.2

sky in the sky 81.7

slang 533

slang uncountable 148.3

Sleep well 545.20

sleeping and asleep 86.2

sleepy be sleepy 92.1

slow adjective and adverb 27.2; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138

small and little 534

smell 535; can smell 125.1; progressive and non-progressive uses 471.3

smile preposition 449

snow preposition 450

so (adverb) meaning 'like this/that' 536; do so 162; even so 189.5; I think/hope/believe etc so 539.1; I don't think/believe etc so 369.3; I told you so 540.2; if so 261.7; I'm afraid so 28.2; so am I, so have I etc 541.1; so I hear/believe etc 539.3; so it is, so I have etc 541.2; so with say and tell 539.3, 540

so (degree adverb) so tired, so fast etc 538; and so much 538.7; and such 569; and very 538.2; ever so 192; exclamations and emphasis 195.3, 184.3; not so ... as 136.2; so ... as to 538.8; so ... that 538.4; so warm a day etc 14; verb before subject after so 302.5

so meaning 'because of this!that' 157.14; so and because not used together 511.1; so and then 537

so as to 289.2

so be it 567.4

so few 538.6

so little 538.6

so long as meaning 'on condition that' 263

so much and so 538.7

so much and so many 542; he didn't so much as 542.4; if he so much as 542.4; it's not so much ... as/that 542.4

so that and in order that 543

so to speak 157.16

so-and-so 544

so-so 544

social language 545

society without the 68.1, 69.4

socio- (prefix) 445.1

solo plural 523.3

some meanings, pronunciation and use 546; and any 547; some of 546.6; and others 546.7; expressions with no preposition 451.2; some or no article 67; some of whom etc 498.8; weak and strong form 616.3

some time, sometime and sometimes 549

somebody and someone 548; no difference 548.1; position with adjectives 13.6; question tags 488.5; with else 183.1

someplace 548.6

something 548; position with adjectives 13.6; something else 183.1; + for ... to 291.6; something that 494.5

sometime and once 393; sometime, sometimes and some time 549

sometimes position 22.3, 24.2; with present perfect 455.6

somewhere 548; position with adjectives 13.6; somewhere else 183.1; somewhere I can lie down etc 498.6

soon comparative and superlative 138; soon, early and quickly 550

soprano plural 523.3

sorry preposition 449; + -ing form or infinitive 299.14; sorry about not followed by that 453.2; Sorry and Excuse me 545.7; Sorry? (asking for repetition) 545.8; with should 521.2

sort of 551; discourse marker 157.16,17; article dropped after sort of 70.6; these sort of 551

sound (adjective and adverb) 27.2; sound and soundly 27.2

sound (verb) 552; non-progressive verb 471.2

south and southern etc 172; capital letters 172.3

spacecraft singular and plural the same 524.3

spaghetti uncountable 148.5

Spanish the Spanish 17.2

speak to/with 312.9; and talk 553

speaking of/about 157.1

special(ly) and especial(ly) 188

species singular and plural the same 524.3

spectacles plural with no singular 524.7

speech 554-555; intonation 555; stress and rhythm 554; see also pronunciation; spoken English

spelling 556-565
British-American differences 51.3
capital letters 556; national adjectives (Italian etc) 364; North(ern), South(ern) etc 172
ch and tch, k and ck 563
comparative and superlative adjectives 137.1
contractions (I'm, won't etc) 143.1
doubling final consonants 562
final -e 560
hyphens 559; numbers (forty-one etc) 389.10
-icly and -ically 254.4
ie and ei 564
-ise and -ize 558
-ly 557
Mr, Mrs, Ms 363.3
noun + noun expressions (e.g. bathroom, living-room, furniture shop) 385.7
plurals 523
simple past 421
spelling and pronunciation (strange and difficult spellings) 565
third-person singular present works, cries, watches etc) 462
y and i 561

spend + object + -ing form 296.2

spit AmE forms 304.3

spite in spite of 272

split infinitive 280.7

spoken and written English 310

spoken English typical structures 514; contractions 143; informal relative structures 498.15-17; informal structures with if 262; intonation 555; question tags 487-488; reply questions (e.g. Was it? Did you?) 484; short answers (e.g. Yes, he can) 517; spoken calculations 389.22,23; stress and rhythm 554; tags 514; use and avoidance of repetition 500.3,5,7; see also pronunciation

spokesman/woman/person 222.5

spring with or without the 70.9

square foot, mile etc 389.19

staff plural with no singular 524.7

stain active or passive meaning 609.2

stand (can't) stand ... ing 296.1

standard English and dialects 308, 309.2

start + -ing form or infinitive 299.10; active or passive meaning 609.1; and begin 99; to start with 157.10

state verbs 471.1

statistics singular and plural the same 524.3

stay 128.10; stay and 53.2

steal ... from passive structure 416.2

steward and stewardess 222.4

still, yet and already 566; still emphasising contrast 157.3

stimulus plural 524.4

stomach-ache countable or uncountable 148.7

stone and stony 386.4

stone (British measure of weight) 389.18

stop + -ing form or infinitive 299.12; + object (+ from) + -ing form 296.2

stopped active past participle 409.4

storey see floor

stories use of present tenses 465

straight adjective and adverb 27.2

strange for ... to 291.4

street and road 502

street names stress 502.2

stress 554; for emphasis 184.2; in abbreviations 2.2; in noun + noun structures 385.6, 386.9; in street names 502.2; stressed and unstressed contractions 143; weak and strong forms 616.2

strike and stroke 304.2

strong and weak forms 616

stupid to 284.2

sub- (prefix) 445.1

subject separated from sentence 514

subjunctives 567; in older English 392; with lest 321

subordinate clauses use of commas 510.4

subordinating conjunctions 510.2

such 568; and so 569; and very 568.4; ever such 192; exclamations 195.3; such ... that / as to 568.5; such a/an 568; such as 568.6; use for emphasis 184.3

such-and-such 568.7

suffer preposition 449

suffixes 445

sugar uncountable 148.5

suggest structures 570; in passive 415

suit no passive 412.4; suit ... for ... to 291.7; and fit 206

sum to sum up 157.21

summer with or without the 70.9

Sunday etc expressions with no preposition 451.3

sunken 410.6

super- (prefix) 445.1

superlatives see comparatives and superlatives

supper and dinner 347

suppose non-progressive verb 471.2; in negative sentences 369; suppose so/not 539; I suppose (discourse marker) 157.16

suppose, supposing (conjunction) 571

supposed be supposed to 572

sure adjective and adverb 27.2; + -ing form or infinitive 299.15; be sure and 53.1; and surely 27.2

surely 573; and certainly 573.1

surnames use 363.1d

surprise non-progressive verb 471.2; + infinitive 284.1

surprised by/at 410.5; very surprised 410.4

surprising structure with should 521.2

surroundings plural with no singular 524.7

swear + infinitive 282; I swear 466.4

swearwords and taboo words 575

Swiss singular and plural the same 524.3

swollen active past participle 409.3

sympathetic 574

taboo words and swearwords 575

tags 514.2,3; question tags 487-488; dropping words before tags 179.4

take and bring 112; take + action noun (e.g. take a bath) 598.2; take or have (a bath, shower etc) 236.1; take a photo 160.6; take (time) 576; take (time) for ... to 291.7; take with two objects 610.1,6

take care (of), care (about) and care for 127; Take care 545.2

take part preposition 449

talk (noun) a talk 598.1

talk (verb) and speak 553; talking about 157.1

tall 'unmarked' use 350; tall and high 246

taste 577; can taste 125.1;progressive and non-progressive uses 471.3

tea (afternoon meal) 347

teach + -ing form or infinitive 299.8; + object + infinitive 283; with one and two objects 610.1,7

team + singular or plural 526.1

tear active or passive meaning 609.2

tele- (prefix) 445.1

telephone numbers 389.5

telephoning 578

television without article 70.11

tell and say 504

tell structures 277.1; can tell 125.2; he told me so etc 540.1; passive structures 415, 418.1; so he told me etc 539.3; with one and two objects 610.1,7

telling the time 579

tempt + object + infinitive 283

tend structure with there 587.2

tense and time 10.2

tenses active verb forms with their names 10; in indirect speech 275; in older English 392; passive forms 412.3; tense simplification in subordinate clauses 580
see also past verb form with present or future meaning, and entries for individual tenses
for tenses with particular words and expressions, see after; as ... as; as if/though; as long as; as, when and while; before; bet; ever; for; hope; if; just; just now; since; still, yet and already; than; wish

text messages 147

than 139.1;+ infinitive without to 281.4; than, as and that 139.1; dropping words after than 177.7; inversion: verb before subject after than 302.5; than replacing subjects, objects and complements (e.g. than is necessary) 581; than me, than I am etc 139.6, 429.2; weak and strong form 616.3; will or present tense with future meaning after than 580.2

than ever 191.2

thank you, thanks 433.3; thanks plural with no singular 524.7

thanking people 545.19

thankful and grateful 582

that and those (demonstratives) 589- 590; expressions with no preposition (e.g. that afternoon) 451.2; that one 395.5; that is where 130.5; that/those of 395.7; that, this and it 590

that (conjunction) dropped 584; comprehension problems 515.4; not used after prepositions 453.1; that and as not used together 511.1; that-clauses 583; preparatory it 583.4; that, than and as 139.1; the fact that 583.3; weak and strong form 616.3

that (relative pronoun) see relative structures

that is to say 157.15,16

That's all right / OK (reply to thanks etc) 433.5, 545.19

the (definite article) 61-64,68-70
dropped after all and both 36.5, 70.5; after amount/number of 70.7; in noun + noun compounds 70.4; after possessive's 70.3; in advertisements, instructions etc 1, 70.19
generalisations with and without the 68
in bed etc 70.1
measurements (by the kilo etc) 70.16
musical instruments 70.10
parts of the body 70.15
radio, cinema, theatre and television 70.11
the accused 17.3; the blind, deaf, old etc 17.1; the British, Dutch etc 17.2
the meaning 'enough' 187.8
the older ... , the happier ... etc 139.5
weak and strong form 616.3
with half 231.3
with superlatives 141.6
see also articles

the British Isles, Britain, the United Kingdom, and England 114

the fact that 453.3, 583.3

the former, the latter 17.3

the hell, what the hell etc 624

the majority 333.5; + plural verb 526.2

the matter (with) 585

the Middle Ages plural with no singular 524.7

the moment (that) 267

the rest 501

the same 503

the United Kingdom, Britain, the British Isles and England 114

the way (= how) 252.7

theatre preposition 450; (the) theatre 70.11

thee 392

their 441; meaning 'his or her' 528

theirs 442

them 428-429; meaning 'him or her' 528; weak and strong form 616.3

themselves 493

then (discourse marker) 157.14; if ... then 261.9; and so 537

there and here 245; + inversion (verb before subject) 22.5, 303

there two pronunciations and meanings 586

there is (introducing indefinite subjects) 587; in question tags 488.4; pronunciation 587.1; there appears/happens/seems etc to be 587.5; there is certain/sure etc to be 587.5; there lives, there remains etc 587.6; there might be, there could be etc 587.5; there is thought to be 418.4

There you go 545.18

there's + plural noun 532.4

therefore (discourse marker) 157.14

thermo- (prefix) 445.1

these 589; these kind of etc 551.2

they 428-429; meaning 'he or she' 222.3, 528; they, one and you (indefinite pronouns) 396

thicken 128.9

thief plural 524.1

thine 392

thing for one/another thing; another thing is (discourse markers) 157.10,11

think meanings and structures 588; think so/not 539; don't think so / think not 369.3; I think (discourse marker) 157.16; prepositions 449; progressive (,continuous') and non-progressive uses 471.3; he is thought to be 418.2; it was thought that 418.2; there are thought to be 418.4

thirsty be thirsty 92.1

this and that 589-590; on the telephone 578.4; this Sunday etc (no preposition) 451.2; this one 395.5; this is the first/last etc: tenses 591; this is where 130.5; this/that and it (things that have just been mentioned) 590; this week etc with present perfect or past 457.3; this week etc with present perfect progressive 458.5

those 589; those kind of etc 551.2; those questioned/selected etc 410.2; see also that

thou 392

though, although, but and however 49; even though 189.4; though intelligent etc 177.11; though meaning 'however' 49.4; tired though she was etc 71

thought countable or uncountable 148.6; preposition 449; the thought of ... ing 297.1

thousand (a) thousand 389.11; thousand(s) 389.15

through and along 45; through, across and over 9; through used for time 592

throw at/to 80.3; in passive 416.2; with two objects 610.1

thunder uncountable 148.3

thy 392

tight adjective and adverb 27.2

till 602

time (countable or uncountable) meanings and structures 593; any time you're in town etc 498.6; by the time that 117.1; in a month's time etc 82.6; time to 306; time for ... to 291.5; it's time you went etc 306.2; on/in time 450; telling the time 579

time and tense 10.2

tired of ... ing 297.1

titles and names (e.g. Mr Lewis, Peter) 363; Ms 222.7

tits (taboo word / swearword) 575

to (infinitive marker) 280.6; used instead of whole infinitive 182; weak and strong form 616.3

to (preposition) and at/in 80; and until/till 602.2; dropped after where 619; to ... ing 298.2; to bed/school/hospital etc 70.1; weak and strong form 616.3

to begin with (discourse marker) 157.10

to blame 287.2

to hear her talk, you'd think, to see them, you'd think etc 292.2

to some / a great extent 157.12

to start with (discourse marker) 157.10

to sum up 157.21

to tell the truth 157.20

today with present perfect or past 457.3

tomato plural 523.3

tonight 594

too (adverb), also and as well 46; in negative clauses 47; position 46.1,4; me too 46.3

too (determiner) structures and meaning 595; and too much 595.2; and very 595.1,7; much too, far too etc 595.3; special word order with adjectives 14

too much/many 596; too much and too 595.2

tooth plural 524.2

toothache countable or uncountable 148.7

tornado plural 523.3

toward(s) 614.3

town expressions without article 70.1; and city 129; the town 69.4

traffic uncountable 148.3

train by train 70.1; on a train 81.4

trans- (prefix) 445.1

translate preposition 449

travel (uncountable) and journey 148.3; countable use 149.3; travel, journey, trip and voyage 597

travelling etc spelling 562.6

tri- (prefix) 445.1

trip preposition 449; Have / Did you have a good trip 545.9; trip, travel, journey and voyage 597

troops plural with no singular 524.7

trouble + (object +) infinitive 282-3

trousers plural with no singular 524.7

true it is true (discourse marker) 157.5

truths pronunciation 525.4

try + -ing form or infinitive 299.6; try and 53.1

try (noun) one more try 598.1

tube by tube 70.1

turn, turn into (changes) 128.7

turning verbs into nouns 598

TV preposition 450; without article 70.11

twat (taboo word / swearword) 575

twice as ... as etc 136.7

two-part verbs (e.g. break up, listen to) 599-600

type of 551; following article dropped 70.6; these type of 551.2

typical preposition 449

ugly adjective, not adverb 27.1

ultra- (prefix) 445.1

un- (prefix) 445.1

unable 3

uncountable see countable

under- (prefix) 445.1

under no circumstances + inversion (auxiliary before subject) 302.7

under, below, underneath and beneath 100

understand non-progressive verb 471.2; + object + to be 607.3; + object + -ing form 296.1; can understand 125.3; I understand that ... 243; make oneself understood 335.2; so I understand 539.3; there is understood to be 418.4

understanding complicated sentences 515

unemployed the unemployed 17.1

uni- (prefix) 445.1

unimportant for ... to 291.4

union with singular or plural verb and pronoun 526.1

United States + singular verb/pronoun 527.6

university preposition 450; expressions without article 70.1

unless 601; + present with future meaning 601.3; and if not 601.1

unlikely 327; adjective, not adverb 27.1

unnecessary for ... to 291.4

until and till 602; + past participle (e.g. until cooked) 411.6; + present tense with future meaning 602.4; and before 602.7; and by 602.6; and to 602.2; not used for distance 602.3

up and down (up/down the road etc) 603

up to (distance, quantity) 602.3

upbringing and education 113

upward(s) 614

us 428-9; meaning 'me' 429.6; us women etc 429.1; weak and strong form 616.3

use any/no use 57.3; is it any use expecting ... ? etc 295.5; structure with there 587.2

used be used to (... ing) 605

used + infinitive (past habits etc) 604; and would 633.8

usual for ... to 291.4; as usual 77

usually position 22.3, 24.2

vacation 248

vanished active past participle 409.3

verb + infinitive 282; + for ... to 291

verb + infinitive or -ing form 296.4; special cases 299

verb + -ing form 296

verb + object + complement (e.g. They elected her President) 607; passive (e.g. She was elected President) 419

verb + object + infinitive 283; passive (e.g. He is believed to be ... ) 418

verb + object + -ing form 296.2

verb complementation what can follow a verb? 606

verb forms in older English 392

verbs of movement she came in running, she entered running or she ran in 608

verbs with active and passive meanings (e.g. I opened the door / the door opened) 609

verbs with particles and prepositions (e.g. break up, listen to) 599-600

verbs with prepositions passive structures 416

verbs with two objects 610; in passive 415

vertebra plural 524.4

very 611; and so 538.2; and such 568.4; and too 595; and very much 611; very ... indeed 273.1; very and much with past participles 410.4; very best etc 140.4

very much 357.7, 611; (adverb) 611.4; and very 611; position 611.4; with comparatives and superlatives 140

vice- (prefix) 445.1

view in my view 157.16

vital + subjunctive 567.2

vital for ... to 291.4

vocabulary uncountable 148.3

voice preposition 450

volcano plural 523.3

volume 389.19

voyage, travel, journey and trip 597

wait 612; wait and see etc 53.1; wait, expect, hope and look forward 196

waiter and waitress 222.4

wake active or passive meaning 609.1; wake, awake and (a)waken 86

wank (taboo word / swearword) 575

wanna (= want to) 308.4, 613.4

want structures and meanings 613; in negative sentences 369.4; non-progressive verb 471.2; + -ing form with passive meaning 613.3; want and will 629.8; meaning 'need' 613.3; want to not possible in passive 418.6

-ward(s) (suffix) 614

warm be warm 92.1

warn + object + infinitive 283

was replacing were (e.g. if I was) 312.9; if ... was to 261.2; weak and strong form 616.3

wash without -self 493.9

watch + -ing form or infinitive 299.5; watch, look at and see 506

way 615; expressions with no preposition 451.9, 615.1; in the same way 157.4; in/on the way 615.5; the way (that) she spoke to me etc 498.6, 615.2; way of ... ing / way to ... 615.3; way of and means of 615.4

we 428-9; inclusive and exclusive meanings 429.5; we who 498.12; we women, you men etc 428.10; weak and strong form 616.3

wear be wearing 164.3

weather uncountable 148.1, 149.4; countable use 149.3; the weather 69.4

weekends at/on weekends 312.9

weekly adjective and adverb 27.1

weigh progressive and non-progressive uses 471.3

weight expressions with no preposition 451.8

weight use of be 92.2

welcome to ... 284.2; Welcome home/back 545.9; You're welcome 545.19

well (adjective and adverb) 617; (adverb) comparative and superlative 138; position 12.3; well and good 617.1; as well 46-47, 343, 78

well (discourse marker) 157.16,17,20

well-known comparative and superlative 137.4

well-read active past participle 409.4

well worth 632.6

Welsh the Welsh 17.2, 364

were instead of was after if 258, 264; after as if/though 74.2; after wish 630.4; was replacing were (e.g. if I was) 312.9; were she meaning 'if she were' etc 261.5; were to in if-clauses 261.2; weak and strong form 616.3

wert older English form of were 392

west and western etc 172; capital letters 172.3

what (question word) 622; exclamations 195.2; questions with what as subject 486; What? (asking for repetition) 545.8; what to 277.2; what, which and who 622; what, why and how 252.4; word order in indirect questions 278.7

what (relative pronoun) 497; no matter what 378; What I need is etc 130

what ... like and how 253

what about ... ? 252.4

what else 183.1

what ever 624

what if 571

what is more 157.11

what on earth, the hell, the fuck etc 624

What time ... ? 82.7

whatever 625; and no matter what 378.2; meaning 'at all' 625.8; short answer 625.7; whatever else 183.1

when with simple past or past perfect 424.1; + present tense with future meaning 580.2; and if 618; dropped after time, day, year etc 498.6; in relative structures: the day when etc 130.2, 494.10; no matter when 378; when ... ing 411.6; when, as and while 73; when else 183.1; when ever 624; when turning, when ready etc 73.4, 177.11

whenever 625; and no matter when 378.2; whenever else 183.1

where + infinitive 277.2; dropped after somewhere, anywhere etc 498.6; in relative structures: the place where etc 130.2, 494.10; no matter where 378; to dropped 619; where else 183.1; where on earth, the hell, the fuck etc 624

where's + plural noun 532.4

whereas 157.2

wherever 625; and no matter where 378.2

whether + present tense with future meaning 580.2; and if 621; in indirect questions 276.3; whether ... or 620

which (question word) 622; which of 622.3; which one 395.5; in which case etc 498.5; no matter which 378; none of which etc 498.8; questions with which as subject 486; which, what and who 622; word order in indirect questions 278.7

which relative pronoun (e.g. the car which ... ) 494-495,498; referring to a whole clause (e.g. ... which surprised everybody) 494.9

whichever 625; and no matter which 378.2

while, as and when 73; while asleep etc 177.11; while in Germany etc 73.4; showing contrast 157.2; while ... ing 411.6

who (question word) 622; and whom 623, 312.9; questions with who as subject 486; weak and strong form 616.3; with else 183.1

who relative pronoun (e.g. the man who ... ) 494-495, 498; he/she who 429.9; I who, you who etc 498.12; no matter who 378; and whom 623, 312.9; meaning 'the person who' 498.19

who, which and what 622

who ever 624

who on earth, the hell, the fuck etc 624

whoever 625; and no matter who 378.2; whoever else 183.1

whole and all 40; the whole of 40.5; on the whole 157.12

whom (question word) 623, 312.9

whom relative pronoun (e.g. the person whom ... ) 494, 623, 312.9; some of whom etc 498.8

whore (taboo word / swearword) 575

who's and whose 627

whose (possessive question word) 441.2, 626; questions with whose as subject 486

whose relative pronoun (e.g. the person whose keys I found) 496; no matter whose 378; whose, of whom/which and that ... of 496.2

why + infinitive without to 628.3; and why not 628; in relative structures (the reason why) 130.2, 494.10, 498.6; why, what and how 252.4; with else 183.1

why ever 624

why on earth, the hell, the fuck etc 624

Why should she? etc 482.2

wicked pronunciation 18

wide adjective and adverb 27.2; and broad 115; and large 106.4; and widely 27.2

widen 128.9

widow and widower 222.4

wife plural 524.1

will various uses 629; and shall 212, 217-220; and want 629.8; decisions, promises, threats, refusals, instructions, orders, requests 217; future auxiliary 212, 216-220; in if-clauses 260; replacing shall 312.9; weak and strong form 616.3; different meanings of will you ... ? 218.4; will have to, have (got) to (future obligation) 361.2

willing for ... to 291.3

win and beat 93

wind and wound 304.2

winter with or without the 70.9

wish (noun) structure with should 521.1

wish (verb) meanings and structures 630; + object + infinitive 283; non-progressive verb 471.2; tenses after wish 630.4,5; wish ... would 630.5; with two objects 610.1

wishes sending good wishes 545.13

with meanings and use 631; and by (tools, method etc) 119

with reference to 157.1

without ... ing 411.6; without and except 194.6; and instead of 301.2

wolf plural 524.1

woman plural 524.2; without article 70.8; woman or women in noun + noun compounds 531.2

wonder I wondered / was wondering in polite requests 436.1,2

won't refusals 217.4

word order basic word order 509
adjectives: order before nouns 15; position 12,13; with as, how, too and so 14
adverbs: position 21-25
always and never with imperatives 268.7
complement before heavy object 607.1
compounds like English-speaking 410.1
declarative questions (e.g. You're working late?) 481
direct and indirect objects 610.2,3
exclamations 195
fronting 513
in older English 392
indirect questions 276, 278
information structure 512
inversion 302-303
objects with phrasal verbs 599.4
participles after nouns (e.g. the people questioned) 410.2
position of subordinate clauses 510.3
prepositions 452, 416.1
reporting verbs (e.g. said John) 156, 303
questions 480
for word order with particular words and expressions, see entries for ago; all; also; as well; back; both; each; else; enough; just now; last; next; only; opposite; ought; quite; rather; such; used to; whole

work uncountable 148.3; expressions without article 70.1

works (= factory) singular and plural the same 524.3

worshippers etc spelling 562.7

worth structures 632; I didn't think it worth complaining etc 295.5

worthwhile 632.5

would various uses 633; after wish 630.5; and used to 633.8; would or should after I and we 518.5; future in the past 221; I would meaning 'If I were you, I would' 264; in if-clauses 262; in indirect speech 275.3, 278.3; in sentences with if 258-259; past tense instead of would after conjunctions 426.1; replacing should 312.9; used to make questions etc less direct 436.4; weak and strong form 616.3

would like 325.6; softening expression 437.3; would have liked to have seen etc 288.2

would rather 491.2; negative structure 491.2

Would you mind ... ? 351.2

wound and wind 304.2

wreaths pronunciation 525.4

wretched pronunciation 18

write with one and two objects 610.1,7

written and spoken English 310

written English paragraphs 406; understanding complicated sentences 515; use and avoidance of repetition 500.3,5,7

wrong adjective and adverb 27.2; comparative and superlative 137.5; preposition 449; there's something wrong 587.2; wrong to 284.2; wrong for ... to 291.4

-y (suffix) 445.4

y'all (AmE dialect form of plural you) 429.8

yard (measurements) 389.18

ye (dialect form of plural you) 429.8; (older English) 392

yearly adjective and adverb 27.1

years old 32

yes and no 634; in answers to negative questions 368.4, 634.1

yet non-affirmative word 381; after superlatives 139.8; tenses 566.7, 455.5; yet, still and already 566; discourse marker emphasising contrast 157.3

you 428-429; you folks/guys 312.1, 429.8; ye, yiz, y'all etc (dialect plurals of you) 429.8; you know (discourse marker) 157.17; you men etc 428.10; you, one and they (indefinite personal pronouns) 396; you who 498.12; weak and strong form 616.3

You're welcome 433.5, 545.19

young the young 17.1

your 441; weak and strong form 616.3

Your health 545.12

yours 442

Yours faithfully etc 146.7

yourself and yourselves 493

youse (dialect form of plural you) 429.8

youths pronunciation 525.4

zero 389.4